Navigating Human Factors in Maritime Safety: A Review of Risks and Improvements in Engine Rooms of Ocean-Going Vessels

Ensuring safety remains a paramount concern within the marine industry. However, accurately predicting and preventing accidents proves challenging due to their diverse and complex causes. A major contributor to these incidents is the human factor in ship operation during maritime activities. Past incidents have consistently linked human error to accidents, estimating the range to be between 65 and 90 percent [12]. Ironically, the terms "human factors" and "human mistake" are frequently used without a clear understanding. The UK's Health and Safety Executive (HSE) sheds light on this, defining human factors as elements that impact behavior at work, spanning environmental, organizational, and occupational aspects, as well as individual qualities affecting health and safety. In contrast, human error refers to actions deviating from plans, rules, or established boundaries [13].

Major shipboard incidents, including fires, often find their roots in the human factor [14]. A recent study by the European Maritime Safety Agency delved into 4104 marine accidents, revealing that 65.8% were caused by crew errors. Specifically, during shipboard operations, crew errors contributed to 65% of 2666 incidents, with an even higher percentage of 68.6% observed in cargo-carrying vessels [15]. The crew's erroneous actions are attributed to the social environment, encompassing safety awareness, personal and manning factors, poor work practices, and crew resource management, as highlighted in incidents involving cargo-carrying vessels [11].

Controlling factors such as crew age, ranks, vessel types, and work environment play pivotal roles in determining safety practices and occupational hazards [16]. Literature in northern Europe explores the impact of safety culture on identifying marine dangers [17], with research suggesting that the majority of maritime mishaps result from human attribution and organizational factors [18]. Human mistakes shoulder responsibility for a substantial 80-85% of all maritime accidents [19]. The recent introduction of new technologies in the maritime transport system raises concerns about technology complacency and over-reliance, both contributing to human error [20]. Acknowledged as contributing elements in marine accidents, human factors encompass all aspects of the intricate relationship between machines and humans [21].

The literature on human error in maritime safety lacks a comprehensive review of the causal factors in shipping accidents [22]. Thus, further research is required to delve into the pivotal role of the human aspect in shipping [23]. Within the realm of marine engineering, a profound revelation surfaces: the primary causes of maritime accidents often stem from the behavioral factors exhibited by seafarers. The culprits, as highlighted in this research, encompass a spectrum of challenges. Inadequate training emerges as a significant concern, encompassing physical constraints, poor communication, flawed judgement, exhaustion, and weariness. Negligence, with its facets of ignorance, carelessness, delusion, foolishness, and anxiety, stands as another contributing factor. Furthermore, issues related to self-esteem, including indolence, acquisitiveness, alcoholism, misconduct, and disobedience, compound the risks [24].

Other studies [14], focused on investigating human variables in seafaring, similarly find that most maritime mishaps are attributable to onboard human errors. Elements such as attention, alertness, flexibility, self-awareness, cooperation, and collaboration among group members are identified as crucial for enhancing safety. Investigations into the impact of human variables on shipping welfare are also actively conducted [22].

In the intricate domain of engine rooms (ER), characterized as a hostile environment during operation, crews face an array of challenges. Negative characteristics such as noise, vibration, and high temperatures impact their work significantly. Primary risk issues include fire, explosion, failure of main or auxiliary engines, electrocution, oil spillage, inadequate lighting and/or ventilation, and the pervasive elements of noise and vibration. These challenges contribute substantially to the human errors observed in a ship's engine. Human variables, ranging from a lack of knowledge and disregard for safety to miscommunication, heat stress, psychological stress, fatigue, and the use of psychotropic medicines, are identified as additional risk factors [24].

In contemporary literature, there exists a notable gap in comprehending the significance of human error in ensuring maritime safety. Despite the consistent recognition of human error as a significant catalyst in maritime accidents, the management literature lacks in-depth exploration of this phenomenon [25]. Various elements contribute to human error within the maritime sector, such as fatigue, insufficient communication, inadequate technical expertise, deficient situational awareness, and complacency. It is imperative for future research to propel the understanding of human error within the maritime industry, proposing theoretical frameworks and hypotheses aimed at mitigating maritime accidents stemming from human error [26-28]. There is a need for a more in-depth understanding of the role of human error in these accidents, particularly in the context of marine engine maintenance [29]. This comprehension should be enriched by considering various theoretical perspectives, incorporating insights from the field of organizational science [26].

The exploration of the human element in shipping has become a focal point for researchers [23]. Within the domain of marine engineering, an illuminating revelation surfaces -maritime accidents are significantly influenced by the behavioral factors exhibited by seafarers. The culprits, as underscored in this research, encompass a range of challenges. Inadequate training emerges as a significant concern, entailing physical constraints, poor communication, flawed judgment, exhaustion, and weariness. Negligence, with facets of ignorance, carelessness, delusion, foolishness, and anxiety, stands as another contributing factor. Furthermore, issues related to self-esteem, including indolence, acquisitiveness, alcoholism, misconduct, and disobedience, compound the risks [24].

Within the intricate landscape of engine rooms (ER), designated as a hostile environment during operation, crews grapple with an array of challenges. Negative characteristics such as noise, vibration, and high temperatures significantly impact their work. Primary risk issues include fire, explosion, failure of main or auxiliary engines, electrocution, oil spillage, inadequate lighting and/or ventilation, and the pervasive elements of noise and vibration. These challenges substantially contribute to human errors observed in a ship's engine. Human variables, spanning a lack of knowledge, disregard for safety, miscommunication, heat stress, psychological stress, fatigue, and the use of psychotropic medicines, are identified as additional risk factors [25].

A comprehensive analysis of marine accident literature, involving 572 papers from 127 journals published between 1965 and 2014 [16], indicates a notable shift in the causes of accidents from less naval architectural reasons to an increasing prevalence of human errors. Conclusions drawn suggest that future marine accident research will be multidisciplinary, structured around diverse statistical derivations, and employ modern investigative techniques. Inseparable aspects include the complex interplay among the natural maritime environment, maritime technologies, human behaviors, and the state of the maritime industry. Analytical studies of marine accidents validate previous conclusions regarding the significance of the human factor [15].

In the context of this study, a closer examination reveals the eight most crucial risk variables: explosions, engine failure, electric shock, oil spillage, ventilation and heat stress, noise and vibration, fatigue, and others per indicated in Figure 2. These variables stand at the forefront, demanding thorough scrutiny to comprehend their intricate interplay and implications [24].

2.png

Figure 2. Risk variables on human factors

2.1 Engine room fire

An established reality within the maritime domain is that onboard fires rank among the most common mishaps, leading to both fatalities and property losses. The (engine room) ER, in particular, stands out as a frequent site for fires, with the human element often at the core of these incidents, sharing striking similarities across scenarios. The safety of the ER onboard ships, crucial for minimizing fire incidents, heavily relies on the crew's actions, especially their adherence to safety culture. Any neglect or omission of necessary measures can potentially result in a fire outbreak. Take, for instance, the delayed identification of fuel leakage or the degradation of insulating materials on hot outer surfaces - both scenarios pose a significant risk of igniting a fire [30].

The ER serves as the epicenter for most onboard fires. In perilous situations, these fires can rapidly spread to other parts of the vessel, leading to human casualties, and even jeopardizing the entire ship. The ER, with its compact, confined, and hot environment, concentrates hazardous components, including numerous fire sources and combustible objects. The threats of fire and explosion vary based on the type of fuel used, presenting inconsistent risks for merchant vessels and battleships [31]. The potential for gas leaks heightens the risk of fires in ER, particularly in ships with dual fuel engines like Marine Diesel Oil (MDO) and Liquid Natural Gas (LNG). The occurrence of a fire or explosion not only inflicts substantial damage on the environment but also poses severe risks to equipment and personnel [32]. Various types of ships have reported severe and extremely severe fire incidents between 2000 and 2014 per indicated Table 1 [24].

ER fires are typically caused by fuel or oil seeping onto a heated surface [33]. According to statistics, 60-70 percent of engine room fires follow the same pattern: a combustible liquid escapes and comes into contact with a hot surface [34]. Fires on ships are different from fires on land, and they are considerably more harmful to the crew and passengers. Due to the complexities of fire, along with additional inherent risks, if onboard fire issues cannot be extinguished, it might result in tragedy, significant damage, and catastrophic accidents. Not only is there a far smaller likelihood of discovering an evacuation path, but escaping via a life raft, lifeboat, or maritime evacuation system is also much more difficult than escaping on land. The chances of surviving outside the ship are dependent on several unforeseen elements such as weather and the risk of hypothermia; therefore, abandoning the ship is no guarantee of survival [30].

Table 1. Fire casualties in various kind of ships occurred between 2000-2014

In summary, onboard fires pose a significant risk in maritime, particularly in engine rooms due to fuel leakage or degraded materials. Crew adherence to safety culture is crucial, and fires can spread rapidly. Between 2000 and 2014, incidents occurred across different ship types. Escape is challenging due to weather and hypothermia risks.

2.1.1 Explosions in crankcase

A crankcase explosion in a marine diesel engine is an operational failure that can damage the ship's structure and endanger the onboard crew. To prevent or reduce the likelihood of a crankcase explosion, various procedures should be implemented. Liquid fuels and lubricating oils do not cause fires, but their vapors can. Evaporation, requiring energy, can be triggered by sources like the main machine/motor compressing propellant, a scorching hot area, or a fire. High-pressure fuel delivery to the injector may lead to leakage, reaching a hot region and vaporizing. The expanding vapor cools, forming a haze of tiny droplets. In this mist, the section closest to the hot area may reach ignition temperature, igniting the entire vapor cloud. When hydraulic oil from a high-pressure pipe contacts a hot point, it generates a flammable mist, similar to gasoline. A similar process occurs when interacting engine components locally overheat. In the 1950s, during prevalent crankcase bursts, and in the 1970s, during outbursts in reduction gearwheels in the ship industry, this phenomenon was described and explained [35].

To sum up, crankcase explosion in a marine diesel engine can damage the ship's structure and endanger the crew. To prevent or reduce the likelihood, various procedures should be implemented. Liquid fuels and lubricating oils can cause fires, but vapors can. High-pressure fuel delivery can lead to leakage, vaporization, and flammable mist. This phenomenon was described in the 1950s and 1970s.

2.1.2 Explosions in auxiliary boiler

Marine auxiliary boiler operation, or steam generation, entails a vast array of potential hazards and failures, all of which pose significant risks. These risks can lead to fatal accidents and incur high costs, including human casualties, machinery damage, disruptions to the smooth operation of the ship, and other financial losses. The following hazardous scenarios within the boiler have been identified based on years of experience with boiler plant operations. Examples include the failure of auto combustion control (ACC), explosions on the fireside, loss of power sources, water leakage due to tube bends or cracks, abnormal increases in pressure, and overheating. Overheating, often the primary cause of boiler damage or explosions, results from low water levels, typically caused by the failure of automatic controls [36].

One critical issue known as 'Melt Down' occurs when the auxiliary boiler continues running despite a very low water level. This situation causes the metal surface receiving heat to reach its melting point. While it may not trigger a boiler explosion, it inflicts substantial damage to the boiler, creating a dangerous scenario that could potentially lead to an explosion.

Another concern is Thermal Shock, defined as a sudden temperature increase. When there is a water shortage, the heating surfaces on the pressure side become overheated. Introducing more cool water in such a situation causes the water to flash to steam. Insufficient space for the steam to expand (given that steam expands 1600 times its volume compared to water) results in excess steam pressure building up. This pressure exceeds the vessel's design limits and can lead to an explosion.

Combustion explosions are also possible when gases accumulate and are ignited by an ignition source, both inside and outside the boiler [37]. Therefore, it is crucial to address and mitigate these potential dangers through proper maintenance, monitoring, and adherence to safety protocols.

To recapitulate, marine auxiliary boiler operation poses risks like auto combustion control failure, fire-side explosions, power loss, water leakage, abnormal pressure increases, and overheating. Proper maintenance, monitoring, and safety protocols are crucial to mitigate these risks and prevent damage or explosions.

2.2 Engine failure

The main propulsion engine and auxiliary engines of a vessel must operate under adverse environmental circumstances, including extremely rough seas and weather conditions. The failure of the main engine unit(s) or one or more subsystems of the main engine or auxiliary engines can have severe repercussions. These repercussions may include damage to the ship's machinery, injury or death to onboard workers, and contamination of the ocean. When the primary engine operates under extreme climatic conditions, the durability and safety of both the main engine and auxiliary engines must be considered holistically. For operation, engines are connected to a variety of subsystems, including the lubrication system, fuel oil system, fresh water and sea water cooling systems, and the scavenge air system [38].

In brief, the durability and safety of vessel engines, which operate under harsh environmental conditions, must be considered holistically, considering subsystems like lubrication, fuel oil, cooling, and scavenge air systems.

2.3 Electric shock

Maritime transportation necessitates the usage of nearly all forms of electrical equipment found in industrial facilities. For example, generators, electric motors, switching and distribution equipment, protective devices, semiconductor converters, voltage transformers and power converters, electrochemical converters - batteries, electrical protection, automatic control and diagnostics, reactive power filters, device power restrictions, drivers, couplings, bushings, various distribution boxes, lighting, heater installations, and so on [39].

Both on board and at the shipyard, the rate of exposure to electric shock occurrence is nearly the same. During welding operations in enclosed spaces, the human body sweats and becomes conductive. This may result in a severe accident of electric shock if this perspiration comes in contact with an electric current. Electric shock mishaps are more likely to occur when there are strewn cables, an open arc jump, cables with broken insulation, uncovered electrical distribution panels, and no earthing or grounding systems. The use of high voltage for portable lighting equipment is one of the leading causes of electrical accidents [36].

To conclude maritime transportation uses industrial electrical equipment, causing electrical shocks on board and shipyards. Welding operations, strewn cables, and high voltage portable lighting equipment increase risk of accidents.

2.4 Oil spillage

The unwanted accumulation of used oil after maintenance work is another source of oil spillage in the engine room, which may occur in bad weather conditions. Avoiding the use of double-wall injection pipes due to human negligence plays a vital role and can lead to this type of situation [40]. Oil spillage in the engine room can result in pollution or even fire. The leakage of fuel oil under pressure from damaged engine joints has the ability to self-ignite, based on the likelihood of a 'hot spot' forming in the area of high concentration within the range of combustibility [41].

Most of the time, onboard spillage occurs due to miscalculation or a lack of proper monitoring during bunker operations. As a result, bunker tanks overflow and spill overboard, causing immense environmental pollution. During bunkering operations, oil spills remain a major source of oil pollution. A large oil leak could spread hundreds of nautical miles from the point of origin, causing catastrophic damage to the maritime ecosystem. Because the effects of an oil spill are severe on the maritime environment, the performance of the ship's crew becomes a major concern during bunkering operations. At this time, the performance of the ship's crew is a critical concern. When attending a bunkering operation, the ship's crew must be extra cautious. In this context, predicting the probability of human error is a critical challenge for the marine industry to maintain a high degree of safety [42].

To sum up, oil spillage in engine rooms, onboard, and during bunker operations can cause pollution, fire, and environmental damage. Predicting human error probability is crucial for the marine industry, as crew performance is critical.

2.5 Ventilation and heat stress

The performance of engines, diesel generators, and electric motors in ship engine rooms is influenced by ventilation. The supply of air for combustion, heat transfer through convection, airflow for heat recovery, and the removal of undesirable heat, all within a specific temperature range for crew comfort and to protect electrical appliances from excessive thermal exposure, are key objectives of engine room ventilation [43].

Vessel concepts have evolved based on modern technologies for design and construction, allowing for more efficient space utilization. However, as ships become more compact with increased space allocated to cargo or working areas and reduced space for engine rooms, ventilation concerns arise [44].

Onboard ships, the atmosphere in the engine room is a typical example of a harsh environment, with extreme temperature and relative humidity conditions. International Hazard Datasheets on Occupation - Ship-Engineer (Machinist) highlight various risks to which ship engineers (machinists) may be exposed. The continuous movement between cold and hot areas exposes engineers to cold stress and/or heat stress. It's important to note that most ship engineers are often unaware of the required observation frequency. In fact, the datasheet [45], the ILO, and standards [46] do not provide clear information about the proper atmosphere and thermal conditions of the engine room, its design, and the behavior adopted by marine engineers to mitigate work-related risks. Work-related risk refers to the likelihood of a worker being exposed to a specific negative event as a result of their work [47].

The engine room is considered significant when assessing the indoor work environment conditions onboard a ship due to its unique qualities, making it one of the harshest locations onboard [48]. Consequently, comfort and heat stress indices were calculated using temperature and relative humidity data collected from the engine room and other areas. Through the analysis of these real-world situations, it was possible to determine the time limit for a person to operate without heat stress, following the ISO standard [25].

In brief, ventilation is crucial for engine performance in ship engine rooms, where extreme temperature and humidity conditions pose risks from cold and heat stress. Engineers calculate comfort and heat stress indices using temperature and relative humidity data.

2.6 Noise and vibration

The workforce in the engine department is exposed to operational sounds in the engine rooms of ships. Staff exposed to extreme noise levels for an extended period may develop deafness. In noisy work environments, the mental demand also increases. Engineers have been proven to be both fatigued and less precise when working in a noisy setting, as scientifically demonstrated [49].

Noise issues are a predominant concern in ship design, affecting human well-being, health, habits, and the overall ambiance. Additionally, individuals on board may experience human error due to an unpleasant noise level, believed to be a significant cause of maritime mishaps. Noise-related hazards significantly impact workplace health and safety, and loud sounds at work can lead to temporary or permanent hearing loss. Noise has a wide range of effects, from short-term annoyance and discomfort to long-term problems, including hearing loss. Beyond its negative health impacts, noise has a significant effect on crew performance. Due to the continual reduction in worker sizes in recent years, fatigue issues have become the primary contributor to human error, necessitating additional research into human factors [45].

To put it briefly, noise exposure in ship engine rooms can cause deafness, mental strain, fatigue, and reduced precision in engineers, impacting well-being, health, habits, and ambiance, and contributing to maritime mishaps.

2.7 Fatigue

The International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) presented the results of a survey on working hours prepared by members of the National Union of the United Kingdom (National Union of Marine, Aviation, and Shipping Transport Officers) (NUMAST) during the sixty-eighth period of MSC sessions, with some of the results listed here: The ship's crew faces a higher workload on board, leading to increased individual workloads and fatigue. Fatigue issues were more prevalent in countries with a less developed marine culture. Crew members identified a lack of manpower as the main cause of fatigue on board [50].

Familiarity with the work may reduce the difficulty of a task, enabling workers to complete it more efficiently. However, long-term familiarity with the work can make it monotonous, leading to decreased attention and potential risky behavior by the worker [51].

Instead of repeatedly performing monotonous activities, a break can be included in the working schedule as an alternative approach, considering the diverse types of engines and machines running together or separately in the engine room. Depending on the operational situation, each engineer in the engine room may take a separate break [52]. To conclude, CFTU reports ship crews experience fatigue due to increased workloads, lack of manpower, and monotonous tasks, particularly in less developed marine countries.

2.8 Others

For the designs that do not support operational processes, crew members are compelled to find alternative ways to carry out their responsibilities, leading to tasks being completed with a risk of promoting inappropriate conduct. This type of behavior can increase the risk of exposure to hazardous substances and injury for engine crew members [29]. Thus, automated technology in the maritime industry, particularly in the context of ship operations, is a significant development that is changing the nature of seafaring. This technology, often referred to as maritime autonomous surface ships (MASSs), leverages advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, sensors, and machine learning algorithms to reduce human error and enhance maritime safety [53]. It includes features such as advanced autopilot systems, automated mooring systems, and enhanced monitoring and data collection capabilities [54]. The implementation of automated ships is expected to lead to reduced human input in ship operations, potentially impacting the jobs of seafarers. The development and implementation of automated ships are not without obstacles, including regulatory hurdles, technology limitations, and industry acceptance [54].

The use of automated technology in the maritime industry, particularly in ship operations, has been a topic of interest for several decades. This technology is seen as a means to enhance safety and environmental protection, with the potential for fully autonomous ships and the use of AI in navigation [55]. The inland waterway transport sector has already seen significant changes due to automation, with the potential for fully automated and unmanned vessels [56]. However, the impact of automation on maritime technology is not without its challenges, including the potential loss of situation awareness [57]. It is quite challenging for a seafarer to keep pace with the rapid growth of new and more complex automated technologies continually being introduced on board vessels [49].

Furthermore, there is no standardization in equipment configuration, and it can even differ on vessels managed by the same business. Consequently, seafarers are frequently required to familiarize themselves with the technologies and devices of every vessel they join, which they may not have used before, shortly after embarkation. This must be done promptly while also becoming familiar with or refreshing their knowledge of corporate regulations and procedures [58]. Moreover, operating manuals are often lengthy and occasionally created without a thorough understanding of user requirements, making it challenging to identify essential instructions quickly. Additionally, there are times when certain equipment is fully replaced, but previous operating instructions and maintenance manuals are not updated. This can be hazardous, especially if the equipment fails and requires rapid servicing for safe operation. These issues contribute to tension and exhaustion, which are factors in marine accidents [59].

With increased onboard computerization and automation, the role of the seafarer has shifted significantly from primary system controller to near-mere observer. As traditional knowledge and abilities are not required for passive control actions, there is a risk that they may be lost [60]. Simultaneously, people's reliance on and faith in automation technology are expanding, creating new sources of error and risk [61].

Seafarers face challenges in navigating automated technologies, lack of standardization, and outdated operating manuals. The shift from primary system controller to near-mere observer has led to loss of traditional knowledge and increased error and risk.

The summary delineates factors contributing to both avoidable and inevitable human factors in maritime incidents. Neglecting safety protocols and maintaining untidiness drive avoidable fire incidents, while a reluctance to adhere to the Planned Maintenance System (PMS) plays a role in explosions. Engine failures, whether in main or auxiliary systems, often stem from improper monitoring, and the risk of electrocution arises due to a lack of knowledge and inadequate safety precautions. Oil spillage is linked to miscommunication and insufficient safety measures, while personal injuries occur when individuals avoid using personal protective equipment (PPE). Inevitable human factors, such as noise and vibration, contribute to fire incidents, while heat and cold stress are significant components in explosions. Psychological stress, prolonged work in confined areas, and excessive workload are linked to engine failures. Monotonous routines, the use of psychotropic drugs, limitations in entertainment, rough weather, and sleep deprivation contribute to personal injuries. Recognizing these factors is crucial for implementing effective preventive measures in maritime safety.

Implementing the above findings in the maritime industry requires a comprehensive approach, integrating policies, procedures, and cultural shifts to bolster safety. For instance, numerous IMO conventions include clauses empowering local governments to inspect foreign vessels upon port visits, ensuring compliance with IMO standards specified in instruments to which the port State is a Party [1]. Key practical steps involve enhanced certification checks, urging port states to conduct regular and thorough assessments of seafarers' certificates and training through standardized checklists and protocols based on procedures for Port State Control 2019’s handbook. Strengthening inspection teams, leveraging technology, and enforcing penalties for non-compliance are crucial actions. Active ship owner participation is encouraged through mechanisms such as incentives for safety compliance, collaboration with industry associations, and recognition of exemplary safety records. Explosion prevention strategies entail regular training, equipment monitoring, and strict adherence to safety codes, with actions including safety drills, simulation training, and audits. Ensuring optimal ventilation system design and maintenance involves routine inspections, training programs, and incentives for compliance. This is in-aligned with IMO’s maritime regulations and compliance to crucially ensure a safe and healthy working environment at sea [1].

Fatigue management necessitates external regulation, alertness management, and strict work-rest timing, with actions including setting limits on working hours and implementing fatigue-monitoring technology. Machine failure prevention requires adherence to safety checklists, comprehensive training, safety audits, and incentives for protocol adherence. Noise reduction and electric shock prevention involve enforcing legislation, upgrading codes, conducting regular assessments, implementing measures, and providing training. Oil spillage prevention entails equipment inspections, training, and enforcement of safety protocols. Human factors awareness should be further fostered through training programs on adherence to PMS, educational awareness materials and the use of PPE to promote a safety workplace culture. Continuous improvement involves establishing a culture of learning from incidents, conducting post-incident reviews, sharing lessons across the industry, and incorporating feedback into safety protocols. Overall, practical implementation necessitates a combination of regulatory measures, industry collaboration, technological integration, and a steadfast commitment to instilling a safety-first culture throughout the maritime sector.

This research holds considerable potential impact for companies, owners, and top management in shipping offices or aboard merchant ships. It provides valuable insights into evaluating and understanding safety culture, its significance, and the hazards prevalent in the ship and maritime sectors. The suggested preventive measures can serve as safety improvement guidelines, offering a checklist for regular monitoring and implementation. Following these measures has the potential to significantly reduce the number of maritime accidents. Moreover, enhancing the capability of seafarers to perform their required tasks further contributes to overall safety improvement in the maritime industry.

More detailed literature review of the other factors for example navigation error, Lack of passage planning and monitoring, inadequate communication, insufficient knowledge and lack of general technical knowledge, Faulty managerial decisions, Lack of maintenance of standards and others which are related to human mistake or reasons might be investigated associated with any theory in the future with statistical analysis. Some research questions can be addressed in the future studies for instance, how can training programs be improved to enhance the competency of maritime crew members, especially in emergency situations? How do different work/rest schedules impact the fatigue levels of maritime personnel, and what are the implications for decision-making and performance? How do communication breakdowns contribute to maritime accidents, and what communication protocols can be implemented to reduce the risk of misunderstandings? To what extent does the integration of advanced navigation technologies contribute to or mitigate human errors in maritime operations?, How can lessons learned from maritime accidents be effectively disseminated throughout the industry to prevent similar incidents in the future?, and others. Inevitable human factors which have been discussed above also require further research to provide proper insight and preventive measures in order to enhance the safety work environment in the engine room. If future researchers successfully answer the questions and test the hypotheses related to human errors and accidents in the maritime industry, the potential implications could be substantial. This research could lead to the development of targeted training programs and technologies, improving the competency of maritime personnel and reducing the occurrence of accidents at sea. Insights into emergency response procedures, human-machine interaction, and organizational cultures could result in more effective crisis management, user-friendly shipboard equipment, and a shift towards safety-focused industry cultures. Additionally, research findings may inform adjustments to regulatory frameworks, promoting compliance and preventing accidents. Addressing the impact of work/rest schedules on fatigue levels could lead to evidence-based guidelines, enhancing crew well-being and reducing fatigue-related errors. Overall, successful research outcomes could contribute to a safer, more efficient, and environmentally responsible maritime industry, with positive implications for public safety, resource efficiency, and international collaboration on safety standards.