Urban Morphological Persistence in a Riverside City: The Urban Form of Jambi City, Indonesia

Rivers have historically been among the most powerful structuring forces in urban development and continue to shape the spatial logic of cities worldwide [1-3]. As complex ecological systems and primary transportation corridors, rivers have long influenced the location of settlements, the orientation of urban growth, and the configuration of street networks and built form [4, 5]. Within the geographical tradition of urban morphology, rivers often function as the primary 'morphological frame', providing a natural constraint that dictates the initial patterns of land conversion from rural to urban use [6]. In many historical Southeast Asian entrepôts, the waterway served as the arterial spine, establishing the first 'fixation lines' that guided the subsequent evolution of the town plan [6-8]. This river-oriented spatial logic creates a unique 'water and land dual-track' structure where streets and river networks collectively form the fundamental framework of the city.

In the contemporary era, however, a significant decoupling has occurred between many modern cities and their rivers. This transition is marked by a shift in orientation from water-based mobility to land-based infrastructure, fundamentally altering the city's spatial structure [9-12]. The prevalence of road networks has led to a process of 'morphological assimilation', where traditional river-oriented settlements are pushed into a transitional state, often resulting in spatial fragmentation and declining visual coherence [13]. Recent studies on historic water towns indicate a diminishing role of rivers in shaping urban riverscapes, often leading to a cycle of 'urban fallow' where original riverfront facades are relegated to secondary functional roles. This weakening relationship with the river is not merely a physical change but a transformation in the city's morphology that threatens spatial identity and collective memory [14, 15].

Despite these global transformations, current urban morphology research has yet to address these dynamics comprehensively, particularly within the Global South. A significant research gap exists because urban morphological studies—specifically those utilizing the Conzenian approach—have been predominantly conducted on inland European cities [16-18]. There is an evident 'Euro-American myopia' in the literature, leaving the morphological evolution of tropical river cities in Southeast Asia theoretically underdeveloped [12, 18, 19]. While general historical accounts of the region exist, there remains a critical shortage of multi-level typo-morphological analyzes that connect macro-urban layouts with micro-building characteristics. Most existing studies on Indonesian river cities [20-26] have relied heavily on socio-cultural or descriptive methods that fail to examine the diachronic connections between streets, plots, and building blocks [26]. Consequently, the mechanisms through which river-oriented morphology persists or transforms under intense land-based urbanization remain poorly articulated.

This research aims to address this gap by analyzing the persistence and transformation of the morphology of Jambi Old Town as a riverside urban form. Jambi City, spatially divided by the Batanghari River, represents a critical case of a historical river port city transitioning from a water-oriented sultanate to a land-oriented provincial capital. Adopting the Conzenian historico-geographical approach, this study systematically examines the 'tripartite division' of the town plan: (1) street systems, (2) plot patterns, and (3) building masses or blocks [25, 27]. By integrating historical maps from the Dutch colonial period with contemporary spatial imagery, the study traces the morphological trajectory of the Kawasan Kota Lama (Old Town Area) from the pre-colonial era to the present day. This approach allows for the identification of 'relic features' in the town plan that continue to act as long-term constraints on modern development [27].

The study provides several significant contributions to the field of urban morphology and planning. Primarily, it extends the application of Conzenian theory to the tropical riverine cities in Southeast Asia, demonstrating that morphological persistence is an adaptation to ecological and cultural 'frames' [27, 28]. Furthermore, the research advances a conceptual understanding of 'morphological sustainability' by linking the persistence of inherited forms to long-term functional and social vitality. The findings reveal how the historic town plan can persist despite a fundamental shift in the city's orientation from river to land [21, 22]. Ultimately, this research provides a diagnostic foundation for conservation and revitalization strategies that prioritize structural continuity and riverside spatial identity in rapidly urbanizing regions [29, 30].

3.1 Geographical setting and the Batanghari River

Jambi City has a long and continuous history. According to Regional Regulation No. 3 of 2014, the city was founded in 1401, when initial settlements began on the banks of the Batanghari River. Originally known as Tanah Pilih, it serves as a vital economic and cultural centre in Sumatra [35] and is located in a lowland basin with elevations ranging from 0 to 60 metres above sea level. The city's geography is essentially shaped by the Batanghari River, in addition to nine tributaries, the Batanghari River also contains Lake Sipin, an oxbow lake. This navigable waterway has historically served as the city's primary 'morphological framework', acting as a backbone for regional and international trade connecting the interior of Sumatra to the Strait of Malacca. The climate is categorized as tropical rainforest, characterized by consistent warmth and high humidity.

As a city crossed by rivers and part of trade routes, Jambi City has a port serving it. Since the time of the sultanate, there has been a fairly busy port. The Dutch then built a modern port around 1920 [21]. City and government facilities during the Dutch occupation include the Residents' house and office, schools, hospitals, and a post office.

3.2 Spatial division: Pasar Jambi and Jambi Kota Seberang

The Batanghari River effectively divides Jambi's historic core into two distinct morphological parts: the southern bank, known as Pasar Jambi, and the northern bank, known as Jambi Kota Seberang. This configuration features a dual urban structure, in which the south bank has developed into a dense commercial area, established according to a colonial grid system, as opposed to the north bank, which retains a traditional, organic linear pattern with extensive stilt-house settlements. Connectivity between these sectors was traditionally sustained through boat crossings called Pelayangan, a significant morphological element that has helped maintain local mobility, although its importance has been gradually dwindling.

3.3 Historical morphogenesis

The morphogenesis of Jambi City can be categorized into four main parts, namely:

3.3.1 Early river-oriented settlement: The sultanate period (ca. 1401–1904)

Jambi City's history began with the opening of its first settlement in 1401, which marks the city's anniversary. This settlement was located in an area known as Tanah Pilih, on the banks of the Batanghari River.

3.3.2 Colonial morphological transformation period (1904–1945)

The Dutch occupation began in 1904, marked by the death of Sultan Thaha. During this period, the Dutch introduced land-based urban planning. Government and military buildings, as well as urban infrastructure, began to be constructed. During this period, the Japanese invaded Indonesia, including Jambi. Buildings erected by the Dutch were also later utilized by the Japanese, such as the Resident's Office, which also served as a Japanese military office.

3.3.3 The independence: Spatial reorientation (1945–1957)

This period marked the beginning of Indonesian independence and the establishment of Jambi Province in 1957. Development during this period did not experience significant morphological changes, although landward development intensified.

3.3.4 Contemporary morphological hybridization (1957–recent)

During this period, development accelerated considerably. The center of government, originally located in the Jambi Market area, was moved to Telanai Pura, along with the construction of housing for Jambi Provincial government employees. During this period, extensive riverside development took place, which included the moving of the Angso Duo Market and the WTC Mall, and the building of the Gentala Arasy bridge and tower, as well as a new inspection road along the Batanghari River.

This categorization is based on key milestones in the history of the city of Jambi, namely the city's anniversary (1401), the death of Sultan Thaha (1904), Indonesian independence (1945) and the establishment of Jambi Province (1957). For each periodization, there are several criteria taken into account, such as political changes, infrastructure development, centers of government and morphological changes. A brief overview is provided in Table 2 below.

Table 2. Periodization criteria

3.4 Relic features and identity

Despite experiencing intensive urbanization, Jambi's Old Town—particularly in the Jambi Kota Seberang area—demonstrates morphological persistence. Residential areas in Jambi Kota Seberang are dominated by wooden stilt houses whose long axes face east and west to reduce solar heat while remaining oriented toward the river. The community maintains a specific spatial nomenclature relative to the river: 'Laut' (toward the river), 'Darat' (away from the river), 'Ulu' (upstream), and 'Eler' (downstream). These terms, which serve as cosmological directional markers, are also used in naming places such as Kasang Darat, Mudung Laut, Tanjung Pinang, Sungai Putri, or Sungai Kambang. These elements, along with historical buildings such as the Stone House and the Al-Ihsaniyah Mosque, define the unique character of the riverside urban area.

5.1 Results

5.1.1 Early river-oriented settlement: The sultanate period (ca. 1401-1904)

Jambi City exhibits a long and continuous historical trajectory, originating from a civilization defined by river access. According to Regional Regulation No. 3 of 2014, the city was founded in 1401, when early settlement was initiated along the banks of the Batanghari River [27]. During this formative phase, the river functions as the primary 'morphological frame', dictating a linear growth pattern where the Residence of Pangeran Ratu served as the principal urban node (Figure 5). This residence emerged as a new centre following an earlier settlement located to the north-west, known as Tanah Pilih Pusako Betuah [27]. This pattern aligns with river-oriented urban development models identified in previous studies [4, 5, 37].

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Urban growth developed organically along both the southern and northern banks, following the river's course as the primary transportation and trade corridor [28-30]. The spatial logic was entirely water-oriented, consistent with Southeast Asian river port models where the waterway acts as the city's 'front door' for economic exchange [5, 10, 36]. Content analysis of the 1878 map (Figure 5) reveals that areas such as Telanai Pura and Pandan Island were originally sago plantations belonging to the Jambi Sultanate, reflecting an integrated agrarian-maritime settlement structure.

5.1.2 Colonial morphological transformation period (1904-1945)

The Dutch occupation began in 1906, following the defeat of Sultan Thaha in 1904, marking a fundamental shift in Jambi's urban development. The establishment of the Jambi Residency in 1906 introduced formal land-based planning principles that created a 'dual urban structure'. On the southern bank, the Dutch introduced the first land-based 'fixation lines' through a regularized geometric layout, including grid systems extending perpendicular to the river.

Key urban structures introduced during this period—acting as enduring 'morphological anchors'—include the Water Tower (Plumbing Office), port facilities, the Landraad building, hospitals, and schools, as recorded on the 1923 (Figure 6) and 1945 maps. The colonial administration reorganized ethnic settlements into clusters, concentrating Europeans and elite officials on higher land to avoid seasonal flooding, while noble families (Pangeran/ Prince Wirokusumo) were restricted to specific zones on the northern bank. This era established the foundational town plan for what is now Jambi's historic commercial core.

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5.1.3 Post independence: Spatial reorientation (1945–1957)

Subsequent morphological consolidation is evident in the 1945 map, particularly on the southern bank of the Batanghari River, later known as the Pasar Jambi area. During this phase, more regularized block and plot systems emerged, accompanied by the construction of public buildings associated with colonial administration. Street structures continued to follow the river's alignment but also began to form perpendicular grid patterns extending inland. This configuration reflects intensified commercial activity and the functional expansion of port-related urban areas. The eastward and southward extension of street networks indicates an emerging shift in spatial orientation away from the river towards inland areas. In contrast, the northern bank, later known as Jambi Kota Seberang, remains predominantly residential—a condition that has persisted with relatively limited transformation to the present day [35]. The urban structure of Jambi Kota Seberang developed in an organic manner [26], characterized by stilt houses and indistinct plot boundaries. These characteristics illustrate a clear instance of morphological persistence in spatial structure despite changes in land-use function.

5.1.4 Contemporary morphological hybridization (1957–recent)

The current urban morphology of Jambi represents a hybrid state where relic traditional forms coexist with large-scale modern infrastructure. A significant 'morphological decoupling' occurred in the late 1960s and early 1970s with the relocation of the provincial government center to Telanai Pura. This relocation shifted the city's administrative weight inland, behind Lake Sipin, effectively relegating the Batanghari riverfront to a secondary functional role. Although this new administrative center remained relatively close to the river, it was positioned on the southern side of Lake Sipin, an oxbow lake formed from a meander of the Batanghari River. This geomorphological process also produced a land mass known as Pandan Island. Content analysis of an 1878 historical map reveals that both the Telanai Pura area and Pandan Island were originally sago plantations belonging to the Jambi Sultanate which subsequently developed into residential areas and shrubland.

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Great Mosque of Al Falah was constructed on the former Dutch military complex, marking a significant reconfiguration of institutional land use within the historic urban core. In 1995, Jambi Port was relocated to Talang Duku, signaling a further shift in river-based economic activity and removing the functional traces of the river port city identity. In addition, sedimentation in the Batanghari River between the Solok Sipin tributary and the Asam River led to the development of the Angso Duo Main Market in the mid-1970s.

Subsequent rapid urban development intensified transformations in riverside spaces. Increased sedimentation prompted land reclamation around the Angso Duo Main Market area, coinciding with the relocation of port activities. This sedimentation process also transformed the former inspection road—originally constructed during the Dutch period—into a double-layered roadway extending from the New Angso Duo Market area to Tanggo Rajo. While recent interventions reflect a growing awareness of sustainability and river–land spatial legitimacy, as seen in the development of the Putri Pinang Masak public open space, contrasting conditions are introduced by large-scale developments such as the Batanghari World Trade Centre. Visual access and continuity play a critical role in shaping public perception and experience of riverside urban landscapes [10, 14], and their disruption represents a key morphological challenge in the contemporary period.

5.2 Discussion

5.2.1 River as morphogenetic structure

The Batanghari River is not merely a geographic backdrop but the primary 'morphological frame' that has dictated the spatial logic of Jambi for over six centuries. The Batanghari River constitutes a fundamental structuring element in the formation and long-term development of the Jambi Old Town, more broadly, Jambi City as a whole, thereby justifying its characterization as a river city [38]. Beyond its role as a transportation corridor, the river has functioned as a residential environment for floating houses, an orienting axis for spatial organization, and a core arena of everyday community life. As a conduit linking the external world to the port as a center of cultural interaction, the river has facilitated continuous cultural exchange, often producing hybrid cultural forms whose origins are difficult to disentangle [33]. In this sense, the river operates as a key generator of urban identity, acting in conjunction with social, cultural, and historical processes rather than merely as a physical landscape feature [38].

Within this context, the Batanghari River can be understood as an agent of morphogenesis, borrowing a concept from biology to describe formative processes through which spatial structures emerge and evolve. Similar to river cities such as Florence [35], Suzhou [19], and Bangkok [36], the river in Jambi has generated a layered system of spatial hierarchy over time. In the Old City of Jambi, the river functions not only as an orienting element but also as an active ecological factor. Rivers contribute to urban development by providing essential ecosystem services through both the river channel and its wider watershed [3] as in Jambi, where the river serves as a source of livelihood and a means of transport.

Morphological change in Jambi has therefore emerged through continuous negotiation between government interventions and community practices, including the utilization of riverbank sedimentation, the construction of embankments, and the appropriation of river meanders as new urban spaces. These processes have reshaped the urban morphology of the Jambi Old Town by enabling the formation of new inspection roads on reclaimed sediment land, signaling a transition from a linear river city to a double-level street structure [4]. Sedimentation and erosion can be analyzed by observing shifts in the riverbank, as shown in Figure 7. The blue lines on the map show the condition of the riverbanks as depicted on maps from 1923 and 1945. This image shows the riverbank in those maps, which differ from the current satellite imagery from recent years.

In the Conzenian tradition, this frame exerted a powerful long-term constraint on subsequent changes, where the river's curvature established the initial 'fixation lines' that guided the alignment of early street systems and building footprints. Beyond its role as a transportation corridor, the river acts as an active agent of morphogenesis, facilitating a layered system of spatial hierarchy similar to those observed in other historical river cities. The transition from a purely water-oriented enterprise to a land-oriented administrative center illustrates how the river continues to structure urban growth through ecological and infrastructure negotiations, such as land reclamation and the formation of double-layered roadways on sedimentary land.

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Figure 7. Batanghari River course (analysis, 2025)

5.2.2 Jambi dual morphology

The morphological evolution of Jambi reveals a pronounced 'Dual-City' characteristic, reflecting the divergent spatial ideologies of the pre-colonial sultanate and the Dutch colonial administration. The opposing aspects are represented in the contrasting personalities of the two riverbanks. The northern bank exhibits significant structural stability, characterized by an organic, linear pattern of spaces between vernacular stilt houses (Rumah Panggung) that form the movement network rather than traditional planning. In contrast, the southern bank, known as Pasar Jambi, exemplifies the impact of colonial modernization, which saw the Dutch impose a standardized grid-based layout and introduce architectural features such as the Water Tower and the Landraad building to consolidate administrative control. The city's duality constitutes a defining feature of Jambi's urban identity, with two distinct spatial systems coexisting within a single entity mediated by the river. Older spatial configurations continue to be absorbed, negotiated, and maintained alongside newer development patterns that are increasingly oriented away from the historic river-based core [28].

As a city adapted to riverine conditions, ports and docks form integral components of the morphological trajectory of the Jambi Old Town. Waterfront cities commonly exhibit ports as key morphological anchors within their historic cores [30], as illustrated by Tuban, where the port remains embedded within the old city structure. Morphological duality means that both riverbanks developed as river-oriented urban areas, with connectivity and interaction facilitated through river crossings locally known as Pelayangan. These crossings continue to operate today, although their functional significance has declined following the construction of the Aur Duri Bridge. Since the bridge's completion, reliance on docks and services as primary modes of transportation has diminished. Nevertheless, Pelayangan has persisted as a toponym and afterwards as the name of a subdistrict in Jambi Kota Seberang, indicating the enduring cultural imprint of river-based mobility within the urban landscape.

5.2.3 Morphological persistence and urban transformation

Despite the intense pressures of post-independence urbanization and the shift toward land-based mobility, Jambi Old Town exhibits remarkable morphological persistence. This persistence is most evident in the ground plan, which remains the most conservative element of the urban landscape, retaining historical grain even as building materials transition from timber to concrete. Furthermore, the river remains embedded in the collective memory and spatial cosmology of the residents. The continued use of river-based nomenclature—Laut (toward the river), Darat (inland), Ulu (upstream), and Ilir (downstream)—demonstrates an intangible form of persistence that maintains the city's riverside spatial legitimacy. Water-related terminology also permeates local toponyms and spatial cosmology, further reinforcing the cultural embeddedness of the river within urban morphology. Place names such as Ulu Gedong, Sungai Marem, Sungai Sawang, Mudung Darat, Mudung Laut, Kasang Darat, Kasang Laut, Tanjung Raden, and Tanjung Pinang reflect a spatial logic structured by water. The persistence of this river-based spatial vocabulary underscores the depth to which river morphology continues to shape spatial perception, orientation, and urban identity in Jambi City.

However, modern infrastructure projects like the WTC Mall, the Gentala Arasy Bridge and the revitalization of Angso Duo Market pose challenges of 'architectural incongruence', risk of 'urban fallow', and potential loss of visual coherence. As a riverside urban landscape, the unity of river and land is not only physical but also visual [10, 14]. Recognizing these relic features is crucial for developing conservation strategies that ensure 'morphological sustainability' while allowing for necessary functional transformations in the contemporary era.