Analysis of Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts of Dams Through Sustainable Management Strategies

Water is an essential natural element for human life in its economic and social prosperity, as well as environmental balance. In this context, water control becomes vital.

Dams contribute to protection from floods that used to lead to massive losses of life and property. They also contribute to the balanced growth of the country by enabling the creation of important economic development poles.

The lives of communities living close to dams may be affected and deteriorate. This requires that dams be treated differently than in the past, with greater attention paid to local needs. This is one of the most important goals of any large dam, as it provides development opportunities for all. Therefore, considering environmental and social factors in the planning and management of dams has become extremely important.

Planning and operating large dams are extremely difficult. The complexity results from the uncertainty of climate variability and hence river flow, the complexity of biophysical interactions within riverine ecosystems, and, perhaps most importantly, the number and type of stakeholders involved. This represents conflict and conflict of different values, interests, or rights in many cases: conflicting forms of knowledge, social norms, and attitudes of stakeholders.

The number of dams in the world increased significantly between the years 1930 and 1970, and their number became enormous, as Table 1 shows below:

Table 1. The number of dams and their distribution in the world [1]

In recent years, the issue of management, decision-making, and planning policies has contributed to decision-makers improving planning and controlling their results in many urban and regional issues. Planning, design, and operation of dams require the introduction of these tools. It can contribute to a wide range of management issues at all stages of the life of dams. Table 2 below shows only one aspect of the suffering, which is involuntary displacement (Figure 1).

Table 2. The number of dams, their location, the date of their construction, and the number of displaced people [2]

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Figure 1. Flow chart of research methodology

3.1 Environmental impacts of dams

Dams have far-reaching environmental impacts on river ecosystems, biodiversity, and the broader ecological balance. The construction and operation of dams disrupt natural water flow, sediment transport, and the migration patterns of aquatic species. This leads to numerous adverse ecological impacts that are critical to comprehend and mitigate [7].

3.1.1 Disruption of natural processes

Dams alter the normal hydrology of waterways, affecting the timing, size, and recurrence of water streams. This disturbance leads to a hydrologic administration that essentially contrasts with the pre-dam characteristic stream designs, causing environmental imbalances [8]. These changes affect sediment transport, supplement conveyance, and territory accessibility for different aquatic species, leading to a decline in biodiversity [9].

3.1.2 Impact on water quality

The impoundment of water in supplies results in noteworthy changes in water quality. Stratification inside supplies can lead to hypoxic conditions and the discharge of destructive substances like hydrogen sulfide and overwhelming metals from dregs, corrupting water quality downstream. The modified water chemistry influences oceanic biological systems, possibly coming about in algal blooms and other natural disarrangements [10].

3.1.3 Effects on sediment transport

Dams trap sediments that would naturally supplement downstream ecosystems. This sediment retention leads to increased erosion downstream, loss of fertile floodplains, and degradation of delta regions [11]. In the case of the Aswan High Dam on the Nile, sediment trapping has significantly reduced the nutrient-rich silt deposits in the Nile Delta, impacting agriculture and fisheries [12].

3.1.4 Biodiversity loss

The fragmentation of river habitats by dams hinders the migration of fish and other aquatic organisms, resulting in population declines and a loss of genetic diversity [13]. Floodplain habitats, crucial for breeding and feeding, are also reduced, which impacts species that rely on these areas for part of their life cycle [14].

3.2 Socio-economic and health impacts of dams

Building large dams often results in whole communities being displaced, as well as the destruction of local economies. Additionally, a change in the quality and flow of water can escalate the risk of waterborne diseases, impacting public health in surrounding communities [15]. For example, as reservoirs form, they may store water, which can be used as a vector for the breeding of diseases, thus worsening the health problems related to malaria and schistosomiasis [7].

The construction of dams disrupts river ecosystems, causing numerous environmental issues and affecting socio-economic factors. To protect the environment and support sustainable management of the dams, negative impacts and risks should be properly dealt with, which requires sufficient mitigation measures and thorough impact assessments [16].

3.2.1 Social impacts of dams

While dams offer considerable advantages like water storage, generating electricity, and controlling floods, they also entail considerable social expenses that need to be mitigated. Alongside the benefits they offer, the social impacts of dams include the displacement of entire communities, the modification of local economies, and even some health effects. This necessitates the careful weighing of the benefits against the social difficulties they create [17, 18].

3.2.2 Displacement and resettlement

Building large dams tends to require relocating communities situated within the boundaries earmarked for the reservoirs [19]. This dislocation results in considerable sociological disruption as communities are dismantled to be reconstructed in regions far away from where land, housing, and resources that they were used to were available, or resources they had relied on. As an estimate, around 60 million people around the world have been displaced due to the construction of dams [20]. The displaced communities are likely to face decreased standards of living, increased financial burdens, decreased employment, hunger, and a lack of basic healthcare, showing the necessity for proper financial assistance and welfare infrastructures.

3.2.3 Health impacts

Human health can be affected by the development of dams, in both positive and negative ways. Water (and irrigation) supply can have benefits on food security and poverty alleviation, which indirectly benefit human health. Conversely, changes in water flow and quality may favor the spread of other waterborne diseases, including malaria and schistosomiasis. These health effects are particularly noticeable in communities around large reservoirs, where still open water creates ideal environments for disease vectors.

3.2.4 Economic and livelihood changes

Dams can significantly alter local economies by changing access to natural resources and transforming land use patterns. While they can provide economic opportunities through hydroelectric power and improved irrigation, these benefits are not always evenly distributed. Often, the most vulnerable populations, such as rural communities and Indigenous peoples, suffer the greatest losses as their traditional livelihoods are disrupted without adequate compensation or alternative employment opportunities.

Table 3 shows the effect of dams.

Table 3. The effects of dams

3.2.5 Downstream impacts

Residents near rivers downstream from dams often observe significant variations in water availability and quality. This can impact farming, fishing, and their drinking water. These alterations may lead to disputes over water usage and exacerbate social inequalities. Changes to natural water flow can reduce the health of ecosystems downstream, affecting the people who rely on these areas for their living [21].

The authors focus on the Haditha Dam, located on the Euphrates River. We look at its basic effects on water storage, irrigation, and power generation, and how it impacts local communities.

Haditha Dam is an archaeological, historical, and tourist landmark on the upper Euphrates River in the influential city of Haditha Economic, cultural, and social landmark for the areas located on the banks of the upper Euphrates River, and the source of clean energy production.

The height of the dam is 57 meters, its length at the top is 8933 meters, the width of the base of the dam is 386 meters, and the width of its summit.

Twenty meters, and the water spillway has 6 radial doors and 6 openings, each opening 16 meters wide, it's a drainage capacity. 7900 cubic meters per second when the storage level is 147 meters above sea level. The highest discharge of the stream is 11,000 meters per second when the reservoir level is 4.150 meters above sea level. The design capacity of the station is 660 megawatts. After the construction of the dam was completed, the dam began operating in 1985 for the first time at a level of 122 meters above sea level.

In February 1986, the first unit of the hydroelectric station was operated using water. The turbine blades are turned to generate electricity by releasing water from the top of the lake to the bottom of the dam to enter the riverbed and then sending electricity to different areas via electrical wires.

Haditha Dam is the second largest dam in Iraq in terms of area in generating electrical power after the Mosul Dam. It has a maximum production capacity of 1050 megawatts and contains hydroelectric generating stations with a capacity of 660 megawatts. The dam was placed under the supervision of the Iraqi Ministry of Electricity and the Ministry of Water Resources. Its construction cost amounted to about 12 million dinars, and it was the goal of constructing the dam was to regulate the water of the Euphrates River in times of high or low water levels and to work on its continuity and balance in the dam lake to continue to generate energy.

5.1 Study area description

The Haditha Dam is located on the Euphrates River in the western part of Iraq. Figure 2 represents a significant piece of infrastructure with both beneficial and challenging impacts on the region's environment and socio-economic conditions. This section provides a detailed description of the study area, which is crucial for understanding the environmental and socio-economic impacts of the dam.

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Figure 2. Location of Haditha Dam in Iraq

5.2 Geographical and hydrological characteristics

The geographical coordinates of the dam place it in a region characterized by arid to semi-arid climate conditions, which significantly influence the hydrological dynamics of the Euphrates River. The exposed geological formations in the dam site and reservoir area are primarily the Euphrates Formation (Lower Miocene) and the Fatha Formation (Middle Miocene), both of which are known for their karstified nature. This karstification poses substantial challenges for dam engineering, including the formation of numerous sinkholes on the right bank of the river [27].

Despite the benefits that dams bring, they are not without drawbacks, and the Haditha Dam is one of the dams that served the areas along both banks of the Euphrates River in Iraqi territory, but it caused damage that some considered negative, while others considered it positive. These damages include:

1- Flooding of the ancient city of Anah and Rawa, flooding of ancient roads and residences and 92 of the villages adjacent to the lake, flooding of agricultural lands, and economic damage to several farmers, homes, and many historical monuments in the ancient city of Anah, known as the Ziggurat of Anah, which was recovered from its old place after the loss of its lower parts.

2- Forced displacement of indigenous people and their separation from their civilizational and cultural heritage to areas far from their original homeland.

3- The migration of several farmers and the abandonment of their lands that were flooded with water. High soil salinity.

4- Causing a major shortage in the livestock that farmers used to raise. One of the negative effects of the dam is the increased accumulation of dead stock of silt in the dam lake, which leads to exposure of its enormous surface to sunlight and high temperatures, or loss as a result of high production rates due to the spread of some plants and their environmental adaptation to the new conditions, as well as Moreover, evaporation during the hot season of the year that occurs in water dams may lead to the possibility of Iraq losing a huge amount of water as a result of evaporation. Climate studies and research have estimated that evaporation in Haditha Dam amounts to about 1.5 billion cubic meters, and in Mosul Dam, it may reach 0.6 billion cubic meters, and in the Hamrin Dam, it was estimated at 0.25 billion cubic meters [28].

An interview and questionnaire were conducted for a random sample of 30 people, including specialists in the field of urban and regional planning, to study the issue of sustainable management of Haditha Dam and the strategies that must be followed to achieve sustainable management of the case under study (Table 4).

Table 4. Analysis of questionnaire results with arithmetic mean and standard deviation

The validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by analyzing the validity and reliability of the questionnaire as follows:

7.1 Validity and reliability of the study tool

Content honesty or apparent truthfulness (validity): The study instrument was submitted to a panel of arbitrators with experience in sustainability to verify that its content is legitimate and meets the goals of the research. After reviewing the tool, they were asked to comment on whether it was appropriate for the indicator, given the content, how many paragraphs it had, how comprehensive it was, how diverse the content was, and how it produced results. They were also asked to provide any relevant feedback regarding any amendments, changes, or deletions that should be made by the arbitrator's judgment when the (Stability) [31].

Analyses were made of Cronbach's alpha coefficient, also known as the stability coefficient Alpha Cronbach's, which is used to determine internal consistency. A value falls between 0 and 1 and is considered statistically acceptable when it is 60% or higher. This indicates that utilizing the tool again under the same circumstances will provide the same outcomes, which are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. The results of alpha Cronbach’s analysis

Table 5 makes it evident that the Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the questionnaire items was 0.82. This suggests that the items have a high level of internal consistency, which is statistically acceptable and validates the measurement tool's stability and applicability.

7.2 Improving the management of dams and river basins

What are the most important challenges that support the sustainable management of Haditha Dam?

The experts’ answers revolved around several issues that were classified into four indicators to achieve sustainable management of the dam:

1. Integration of stakeholder input
2. Monitoring and decision support systems
3. Opportunities for improvement
4. Planning and operating challenges

The results of the survey were according to a five-point Likert scale for each strategy, where the number 1 indicates very agree, the number 2 indicates agree, the number 3 is neutral, No. 4 disagree, and No. 5 strongly disagree. Figure 4 indicates the questionnaire results for the first indicator.

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Figure 4. Questionnaire results for the first indicator

7.3 Integration of stakeholder input

Seventy percent strongly agree of the specialists interviewed strongly agree that one of the most important strategies needed is the integration of stakeholder input.

Incorporating stakeholder input into the planning and decision-making processes is crucial for achieving equitable and sustainable outcomes. Engaging local communities and ensuring their participation in decision-making can mitigate social impacts and enhance public acceptance of dam projects. Effective communication strategies and transparency are essential to address concerns and foster collaboration among stakeholders.

Effective management of dam and river basin projects requires addressing complex challenges through advanced decision support systems, stakeholder engagement, and sustainable planning practices. By leveraging technological advancements and fostering inclusive decision-making processes, it is possible to achieve balanced and sustainable outcomes that meet both human and environmental needs.

7.4 Monitoring and decision support systems

Fifty percent strongly agree, while 23% agree, of the specialists interviewed believe that one of the most important strategies needed by dams includes Monitoring and decision support systems (Figure 5).

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Figure 5. Questionnaire results for the second indicator

Advanced monitoring systems integrated with decision support capabilities are essential for real-time analysis and diagnosis of dam behavior. These systems utilize engineering, mathematical, and artificial intelligence methods to provide comprehensive safety evaluations and operational diagnostics. Effective DSS can enhance the safety and functionality of dams by continuously evaluating data from multiple sensors and integrating it into actionable insights.

7.5 Opportunities for improvement

Sixty percent agree, 23% strongly agree, of the specialists interviewed believe that one of the most important strategies needed by dams includes planning and operation processes (Figure 6). Questionnaire results for the third indicator, including Opportunities for improvement. This can be explained by the Technological advancements that present significant opportunities for improving dam management. The use of multisensorial information fusion and intelligent inference engines can minimize human error and provide more accurate predictions of dam behavior. Additionally, the implementation of eco-engineering decision scaling frameworks helps balance engineering and ecological needs, promoting sustainability in water resource management.

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Figure 6. Questionnaire results for the third indicator

7.6 Planning and operating challenges

Thirty percent strongly agree, and 30% agree that the specialists interviewed believe that the planning and operating challenges are important strategies needed by dams (Figure 7).

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Figure 7. Questionnaire results for the fourth indicator

The primary challenges in dam planning and operation include managing conflicting demands, ensuring safety, and adapting to changing environmental conditions. Optimal reservoir operations must consider multisectoral human pressures and climate extremes, making decision-making complex. Additionally, the unpredictability of hydrological events necessitates robust planning to mitigate risks associated with dam failure and to maintain the ecological balance.