A Blockchain-IoT Framework for Preventing Counterfeit Medical Supplies via Ride-Sharing Networks

The literature survey explores existing research works based on Blockchain based supply chain, Blockchain application in healthcare, IoT enabled tracking systems and different ride sharing models. The detailed study has been summarized in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Literature survey on existing Blockchain based applications in healthcare domain

2.1 Background

Blockchain Technology

By using cryptographic techniques, Blockchain, the decentralized and distributed ledger technology, ensures data security and authenticity. It reduces the thirty-party involvement thereby solving the trust issues. Thus, the supply chain as a whole might be elevated to a new level by the technology's transparency and trackability [31]. Such a framework is more suitable for pharmaceutical industry for traceable and transparent supply chain model. In this distributed environment data can be generated by multiple stakeholders like Manufactures, Suppliers, Logistics, distributors and end users yet the integrity of the data can be maintained [32]. The basic structure of Blockchain is given in Figure 1.

The conventional supply chain systems within the healthcare sector primarily operate in a centralized manner, exhibiting limitations in terms of transparency and traceability of products among various stakeholders. Due to data replication, traditional supply chain systems are vulnerable to counterfeiting. However, Blockchain resolves this problem by storing the data in immutable ledgers [33].

Figure 2 shows how Blockchain takes a prominent role in the healthcare domain. The application areas are wide with varied benefits like immutability, data provenance, integrity, etc.

Figure 1. A generic Blockchain structure maintained by user and miner nodes of a peer-to-peer network

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Figure 2. A mind map depicting the reasons of Blockchain integration and its application areas in healthcare domain [34]

Internet of Things (IoT) in Logistics

IoT’s integration with transportation and logistics systems not only improves efficiency but also enhances safety, reduces costs, and contributes to a more sustainable and eco-friendly approach to managing the movement of goods and people [35].

Smart logistics and transportation rely on the intellectual interconnection of IoT devices to form a coherent system. Real-time tracking and constant monitoring are applied to these devices. Integrated sensors, actuators, and other devices that gather and send real-time data across the network infrastructure are used by the IoT system to accomplish this connectivity. In the transportation and logistics industry, real-time data transmission and the integration of IoT components are critical to improving productivity, security, and decision-making.

IoT has made transportation and logistics smarter, but it also brings problems like keeping data safe, protecting privacy, and making sure systems work reliably. To address these issues, a number of crucial elements and solutions are required, such as robust cryptographic techniques to ensure the confidentiality and safety of data transported and stored within IoT systems. Encryption, authentication, and secure key management play critical roles in safeguarding sensitive information from unauthorized access and tampering.

In addition, IoT devices usually have low processing and storage capacities, which leaves them vulnerable to several kinds of cyberattacks. Building a safe system is therefore crucial. This requires strong access controls, frequent software updates, and secure communication protocols. Furthermore, using security monitoring and intrusion detection systems can assist in quickly identifying and addressing possible threats. It is essential to put systems in place to ensure data integrity. Digital signatures and hash functions can be used to verify that data has not been altered during storage or transmission.

In summary, IoT in smart transportation and logistics systems requires a multifaceted approach to address security and privacy concerns. To secure data integrity, availability, and confidentiality while unleashing the full potential of IoT technology in various areas, this comprises resilient infrastructure, resource-efficient security mechanisms, and cryptographic algorithms.

Therefore, a safe, open, and effective logistics and transportation system can be created by combining Blockchain technology with IoT. It enhances data integrity, supply chain visibility, and automation while reducing the risks associated with fraud, errors, and cyberattacks. This combination has the ability to completely reshape the industry and improve its dependability and credibility.

Blockchain for Sustainability

Due to its potential to fill in a number of environmental, social, and economic research gaps, Blockchain technology adoption in the creation of sustainable supply chains is gaining momentum [36]. The following are some ways that sustainable supply chains might use Blockchain:

Transparency and Traceability: Blockchain provides a transparent and immutable ledger that records every transaction and movement of products in the supply chain. This transparency enables stakeholders to trace the origin of products, ensuring that they are ethically sourced, environmentally friendly, and adhere to sustainability standards.

Supply Chain Visibility: IoT enabled Blockchain enhances supply chain visibility by providing real-time updates on product locations, conditions, and status. This enables better decision-making, reduces waste, and minimizes the environmental impact associated with inefficient supply chain practices.

Smart Contracts: Smart contracts, self-executing agreements coded on the Blockchain, can automatically enforce sustainability criteria and agreements between supply chain partners. For instance, a smart contract can ensure that a shipment of sustainable materials meets specific environmental standards before payment is released.

Reduction of Counterfeits: Blockchain's immutability and traceability make it difficult for counterfeit products to enter the supply chain. This ensures that consumers receive genuine, sustainable products and reduces the environmental and economic impact of counterfeit goods.

Efficiency and Cost Reduction: Blockchain streamlines supply chain processes by automating tasks such as verification, authentication, and payment. This reduces operational costs and the environmental impact associated with resource-intensive paperwork and manual processes.

Carbon Footprint Tracking: Some Blockchain platforms offer tools to calculate and record the carbon footprint of products as they move through the supply chain. This data can help companies make informed decisions to reduce emissions and adopt more sustainable practices.

Compliance and Reporting: Blockchain simplifies compliance reporting for sustainability standards and regulations. Companies can easily access and share accurate, auditable data, demonstrating their commitment to sustainability.

Consumer Engagement: Blockchain-powered platforms can engage consumers in sustainability efforts. Consumers can use apps to track the environmental impact of their purchases, encouraging responsible buying decisions.

Collaboration: Blockchain encourages collaboration among supply chain partners. It creates trust through transparent and verifiable data, fostering cooperation on sustainability initiatives.

To effectively adopt Blockchain for sustainable supply chains, organizations should carefully plan their implementation, collaborate with partners, and ensure data accuracy and integrity. As sustainability becomes a paramount concern for businesses and consumers, Blockchain technology offers a potent tool to align supply chains with sustainable practices and goals [37]. Figure 3 shows what an ideal supply chain requires.

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Figure 3. Ideal supply chain system hyperledger sawtooth

Hyperledger is an open-source community dedicated to providing solutions for permissioned Blockchains, including projects like Fabric, Sawtooth, and Iroha. Among these, Hyperledger Sawtooth stands out as an enterprise-grade permissioned Blockchain platform designed for the development of Blockchain-based applications and networks.

One of the distinctive features of Sawtooth is its use of the Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET) consensus mechanism. PoET efficiently handles large distributed node groups while minimizing resource usage. PoET is designed for permissioned Blockchain networks where only verified nodes can take part in the transactions thereby avoiding the sybil attacks. PoET does not require complex computational mining process like PoW consensus mechanisms. Hence the chances of 51% attack to occur is impossible. This makes Sawtooth suitable for enterprise-level applications that require scalability and efficiency. It offers specific templates and guidelines tailored for Supply Chain and Logistics applications, making it well-suited for these industries.

A key advantage of Hyperledger Sawtooth is its modularity. This flexibility allows corporations to customize transaction rules, consensus algorithms, and authorization schemes to align precisely with their unique requirements. Another vital requirement in logistics and supply chain systems is the ability to integrate seamlessly with Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Hyperledger Sawtooth meets this requirement by providing APIs that facilitate integration with IoT devices, enhancing the efficiency and functionality of these systems [38]. Figure 4 shows the main elements of the sawtooth framework.

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Figure 4. Detailed architecture of sawtooth nodes and its interaction with the sawtooth network

2.2 Proposed system

The system architecture of the Hyperledger saw tooth framework-based healthcare supply chain system is given in Figure 5. The major components of a business network are stakeholders or participants, assets, and then the transactions. The supplier, manufacturer, distributors, and end users like a hospital, pharmacies, and patients are the stakeholders or actors of the proposed system. The asset includes the order invoice, device details, lot details, repositories, etc. The transaction includes the updated order status, update raw materials details, update logistics details, etc. Every user will have a replica of the ledger.

Data leakage is a serious problem in the traditional healthcare supply chain and is prevented by the immutability of the data placed into the Blockchain. According to the Blockchain structure described above, an asset is any record that has the owner, the location, and a unique identifier. An actor is an entity who can own, update and transfer a record. And every actor has a private and public key to sign the transactions. The transactions can be creating records, updating records, and making transactions. The proposed system uses the transaction processor to validate the transactions. Sawtooth Python 3 SDK is used to design and develop the transaction processor.

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Figure 5. Architecture of proposed healthcare supply chain using Sawtooth with different stake holders of the system

Client: A lightweight web app is developed using JavaScript to add new stakeholders and assets and change the rights of the assets to different owners and change its location. These client requests are submitted to the REST API as HTTP requests.

REST API: Written in python this takes care of a few of the clients like handling the transaction requests, talking to the validator, etc. In the off-chain database, it also maintains the user data and private/public key pair.

A Python event subscriber handles all the sawtooth events and stores the data in an off-chain database. Figure 6 shows the suggested architecture of the medical supply chain model.

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Figure 6. Data flow of registering a supply chain event transaction into the Blockchain platform

Blockchain energy consumption is too high in case of PoW consensus mechanism, where complex computational problems to be solved as a part of their mining work. However, the proposed approach uses PoET which adapts Trusted Execution Environments (TEEs) where the energy consumption is greatly reduced. In order to make it more sustainable the system reduces more on-chain transactions and integrate off chain storage systems.

2.3 System architecture

The workflow architecture of the proposed system is given below in Figure 7. the integration of Blockchain and RFID technology creates a powerful combination that offers numerous benefits in asset management within the supply chain. It enhances efficiency, traceability, security, and innovation while enabling differentiation and providing a foundation for more transparent and reliable supply chain operations. The data flow of the supply chain process shown in Figure 8 is as follows.

• All the stakeholders must resister and are part of the network. Initially, the hospitals or pharmacists will check for the stocks and can place an order request for the medical devices from the manufacturer.

• The request will be sent to the manufacturer who will authenticate and verify the request made and will send a request to the suppliers to send the necessary raw materials needed for the manufacturing process.

• Once the procedure is completed, the manufacturer starts the transaction to create the product on the Blockchain. This information includes the product's name, ID, expiration date, manufacturer details, batch number, and RFID tags, which enable users to identify and track inventory throughout the supply chain lifecycle.

• The transaction number then can be shared with the distributors to verify the validity of the transaction.

• The distributor then can add his signature and send the product to the wholesaler.

• When the product reaches the last-mile delivery phase (e.g., a ride-sharing driver picks up the medical supply), the Blockchain ensures that the product’s integrity has been maintained up to that point. The final delivery to the healthcare provider or patient can be confirmed and recorded.

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Figure 7. Workflow of different users of the medical supply chain and their interaction within the process and the role of Blockchain in the proposed system

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Figure 8. IoT enabled Blockchain based healthcare supply chain system process flow

Sometimes the hospitals and pharmacies can purchase the products directly from the manufacturer or a wholesaler. In each phase when the product is transmitted to another level, the corresponding user should transfer the ownership by adding their signature for authenticity. Once the process gets completed the manufacturer again sends a request to the distributor associated and will update the orders status and the ownership details. The distributor then delivers the product to the consumer who will verify the transaction history and will start consuming the products.

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is a contactless automatic identification and communication technology that excels in simultaneously identifying multiple high-speed moving objects, even in challenging environments, without the need for human intervention. Furthermore, it can label, store, and oversee information related to objects via radio-frequency signals [39]. In comparison to barcodes, RFID tagging technology offers numerous advantages, including convenience, resistance to pollution, the ability to handle vast amounts of information, and recyclability. Within the realm of logistics, RFID has found widespread applications in tasks such as production processes, warehouse management, logistics tracking, and combating counterfeit products. As a result of its extensive use, RFID technology has significantly enhanced the efficiency of supply chain management. The sequence flow of the supply chain process is shown in Figure 9 below. The IoT sensors are attached to the medical supplies for seamless monitoring. Using HTTP REST APIs the real time data is transmitted to the edge nodes for pre-processing. The Smart contracts validate the real time data with predefined conditions and alerts if counterfeits are detected. Once the validation the data is encrypted and critical data are stored on the distributed ledger while large datasets are maintained in off-chain databases with Blockchain hashes. This assures the data integrity. The trusted stakeholders can access real-time shipment data via Hyperledger APIs ensuring secure and tamper-proof tracking of medical supplies.

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Real-time data exchange between the proposed approach and existing supply chain system can be done using the REST API. The IoT sensor data are processed through edge nodes transmitted via HTTP Protocols to the smart contracts for seamless data exchange.

2.4 Experimental setup

In this section the experiment setup, tools, and methods used on the Hyperledger framework.

Test Environment: A four-node BC network is virtualized for the experiments using the Docker platform on a single machine. The client application and the smart contracts (transaction processors) of the Sawtooth network are written in Python.

Hardware Requirements

• Model: ASUS N56JK-CN051H

• CPU: Intel Core i7-4710HQ, 2.50GHz

• RAM: 7,7 GiB DDR3, 1600 MT/s

• Disk: 1 TB WDC PC SN530 SDBPNPZ-1T00-1014

Software Requirements

• OS: 18.04.3 LTS

• Docker Version: Docker Community Edition, version 17.05.0-ce

• Docker-compose: Docker Compose, version 1.13.0

• Sawtooth Version: 1.2.3

• Node: v10.24

• No. of nodes involved in test transaction: Four including a validator, a REST API, to process the smart contracts a transaction processor, and a consensus engine for every node

• Consensus: PoET

• Maximum batches per block: 1000

• Maximum Block transaction:1000

• Block Publishing time: 100ms

Test Tool:

Hyperledger caliper the benchmarking tool is used to perform tests locally. Caliper helps in tracking metrics like latency, throughput, resource consumption etc. The Blockchain benchmarking tool Hyperledger caliper is used to evaluate metrics such as transaction throughput, latency, success rate, and CPU / Memory resource consumption. This can be done based on the timestamps of the transaction and calculating the metrics based on the study [40]. It supports multiple Blockchain platforms and is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Hyperledger caliper compatibility with Blockchain platforms

Workload: The workload is both CRUD operations and asset flow from producer to consumer.

Measure Type: The metric throughput is used to assess Blockchain performance. Throughput can be measured by dividing the total committed transactions by the total duration in seconds. Throughput shows how quick the transactions get committed to the ledger successfully. The latency is measured in seconds as the time between a transaction being sent and a response.

Observation Points: The performance of the Blockchain network is measured from the client's perspective.

Chain code: A program where business logic for sawtooth is written. The number of transactions, the transaction speed can be preset using this chaincode test. It is then run by the caliper and outputs the results.

Transaction characteristics: Simple and small transactions are used for testing.

The various assets, stakeholders, and transactions are shown in Figure 10. The primary operational requirements of the proposed system are as follows.

• A manufacturer can create a product on Blockchain.

• A manufacturer can transfer a product to a distributor and so on.

• The owner can start the transfer request

• Any consumer/end-user can track the product.

The algorithms for various functionalities of the proposed system are given below. Algorithm1 shows the sample code of how a product is created on a Blockchain. The manufacturer enters the product details such as the ProductID, Batch and Lot number, and Expiry date along with the manufacturer ID. The timestamp of the transaction is then generated which is then later combined with the product key for more authentication and traceability. As a result of this transaction, a transaction ID will be generated which can be further used to ensure traceability.