Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Western Australia: Planning for Sustainable Urban Futures

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Western Australia: Planning for Sustainable Urban Futures

P. Cozens 

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Curtin University of Technology, Western Australia

Page: 
272-292
|
DOI: 
https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V3-N3-272-292
Received: 
N/A
| |
Accepted: 
N/A
| | Citation

OPEN ACCESS

Abstract: 

Purpose: Cities as places of human habitation have multiple and interwoven impacts on the environment and upon their inhabitants. There are many definitions and interpretations of sustainable development and various models exist for the sustainable city, ranging from ‘light green’ to ‘dark green’. This paper discusses the ‘redesigning the city’ model and investigates the extent to which crime and fear of crime are integrated within this framework and argues that crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) represents a useful planning tool to assist in the development of urban sustainability. Results: A review of the literature clearly indicates that crime and fear of crime need to be considered within sustainability frameworks and that these issues can seriously undermine the broader aims of urban sustainability. If sustainability is to adequately represent the new large-scale vision to guide the planning agenda for the 21st century, it must incorporate a primary consideration for all potential threats to the long-term sustainable health and personal safety of both the built environment and its occupants. Conclusions: The paper concludes that such issues as crime and the fear of crime are not effectively represented within most sustainability agendas, and require explicit inclusion. Analysts tend to focus on levels of recorded crime, largely ignoring the crucial and arguably more important dimension of citizens’ fear of crime and their perceptions of the built environment. This paper provides recommendations for integrating crime and fear of crime within urban sustainability. It also proposes that ‘designing out crime’, also known as CPTED, represents a vital tool for assisting in the creation, development and promotion of more user-friendly and sustainable urban environments.

Keywords: 

cities, crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED), designing out crime, fear of crime, perceptions of crime, sustainability, Western Australia

  References

[1] Haughton, G., Searching for the sustainable city: competing philosophical rationales and processes of ‘idealogical capture’ in Adelaide, South Australia. Urban Studies, 36(11), pp. 1891–1906, 1999.

[2] Berke, J., Does sustainable development offer a new direction for planning? Challenges for the twenty-fi rst century. Journal of Planning Literature, 17(1), pp. 21–36, 2002.

[3] Carmona, M., Sustainable urban design – a possible agenda. Planning for a Sustainable Future, eds A. Layard, S. Davoudi & S. Batty, Spon Press: London, pp. 165–192, 2001.

[4] Crowe, T., Crime Prevention through Environmental Design: Applications of Architectural Design and Space Management Concepts, 2nd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, 2000.

[5] Bronowski, J., The Ascent of Man, Little Brown & Co, BBC Books: London, 1974.

[6] Wirth, L., Urbanism as a way of life. The American Journal of Sociology, 44(1), pp. 1–24, 1938.

[7] McDonough Architects. The Hanover Principles. Design for Sustainability. EXPO 2000 the World’s Fair, Hanover, Germany, William McDonough and Partners: Vancouver, 1992.

[8] Mayhew, H., London Labour and the Condition of the London Poor, Griffi n: Bohn, London, 1862.

[9] Booth, C., Labour and Life of the People, Williams and Norgate: London, 1889.

[10] Del Carmen, A. & Robinson, M.B., Crime prevention through environmental design and consumption control in the United States. The Howard Journal, 39(3), pp. 267–289, 2000.

[11] CAG Consultants. Sustainability in Development Control, A Research Report, Local Government Associations: London, 1997.

[12] Maslow, A., Motivation and Personality, Harper: New York, 1943.

[13] Chapman, C., Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Motivational Model, http://www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm, visited 21/06/06, 2002.

[14] Shepherd, J., Criminal deterrence as a public health strategy. The Lancet, 358(November), pp. 1717–1722, 2001.

[15] Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B. & Wilkinson, R., Crime: social disorganisation and relative deprivation. Social Science and Medicine, 48, pp. 719–731, 1999.

[16] Cohen, D., Mason, K., Bedimo, A., Scribner, R., Basolo, V. & Farley, T., Neighborhood physical conditions and health. American Journal of Public Health, 93(3), pp. 467–471, 2003.

[17] Government of Western Australia. Hope for the Future: The Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy, Department of Premier and Cabinet: Perth, 2003.

[18] Barbier, E., The concept of sustainable economic development. Environmental Conservation, 14(2), pp. 101–110, 1987.

[19] Hancock, T., Planning and creating healthy and sustainable cities: the challenge for the 21st century. Our Cities, Our Future: Policies and Action Plans for Health and Sustainable Development, eds C. Price & A. Tsouros, WHO Healthy Cities Project Offi ce: Copenhagen, 1996.

[20] Price, C., (ed.), Sustainable Development and Health: Concepts, Principles and Frameworks for Action for European Cities and Towns, World Health Organisation Regional Offi ce for Europe: Copenhagen, 1997.

[21] Black, A., The quest for sustainable healthy communities. Paper presented at the Effective Sustainability Education: What Works? Why? Where Next? Linking Research and Practice Conference, Sydney, Australia, 18–20th February 2004.

[22] Gladwin, T., Kennelly, J. & Krause, T., Shifting paradigms for sustainable development: implications for management theory and research. The Academy of Management Review, 20(4), pp. 874–907, 1995.

[23] Hens, L. & De Wit, J., The development of indicators and core indicators for sustainable development: a state of the art review. International Journal for Sustainable Development, 6(4), pp. 436–459, 2003.

[24] Western Australian Planning Commission (WAPC). Liveable Neighbourhoods, 3rd edn, WAPC: Perth, Western Australia, http://www.planning.wa.gov.au, 2004.

[25] Sarkissian, W. & Kaufman, C., New urbanism and residential crime: a storm in a teacup or a real cause for alarm. Proceedings of the 9th Annual International CPTED Association Conference, Brisbane, Australia, 13–16th September 2004.

[26] Du Plessis, C., The links between crime prevention and sustainable development. Open House International, 24(1), pp. 33–40, 1999.

[27] Napier, M., Du Plessis, C., Liebermann, S., Kruger, T., Shaw, M., Louw, A. & Oppler, S., Environmental Design for Safer Communities in South Africa, Vols 1 and 2, Council for Scientifi c and Industrial Research: Pretoria, 1998.

[28] Vanderschueren, F., Towards safer cities. UNCHS Habitat Debate, 4(1), 1998.

[29] Mayhew, P., Counting the Costs of Crime in Australia. Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC), Trends and Issues No. 247, AIC, Canberra, 2003.

[30] Johnson, H., Crime Victimisation in Australia: Key Results of the 2004 International Crime Victimisation Survey, Research and Public Policy Series, No. 64, 2005.

[31] Coleman, A., The crime crisis and preventable crimino-genesis. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 6(2), pp. 102–109, 1998.

[32] Newman, O., Defensible Space People and Design in the Violent City, Architectural Press: London, 1973.

[33] Brantingham, P. & Brantingham, P., Environmental Criminology, Sage Publications: Beverly Hills, 1981.

[34] Brantingham, P. & Brantingham, P., Environmental criminology: from theory to urban planning practice. Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention, 7(1), pp. 31–60, 1998.

[35] Ekblom, P., Less crime by design. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 539, pp. 114–129, 1995.

[36] Taylor, R. & Harrell, A., Physical Environment and Crime. National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice: Washington, DC, 1996.

[37] Clarke, R., (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies, 2nd edn, Harrow and Heston: New York, 1997.

[38] Felson, M. & Clarke, R., Opportunity Makes the Thief. Practical Theory for Crime Prevention, Police Research Series Paper 98, Home Offi ce Policing and Reducing Crime Unit, Research Development and Statistics Directorate: London, 1998.

[39] Sherman, L., Farrington, D., Welsh, B. & Mackenzie, D., Evidence-based Crime Prevention, Routledge: London, 2002.

[40] Cozens, P., Saville, G. & Hillier, D., Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED): a review and modern bibliography. Journal of Property Management, 23(5), pp. 328–356, 2005.

[41] Grimm, N., Grove, J., Picket, S. & Redman, C., Integrated approaches to long-term studies of urban ecological systems. Bioscience, 50(7), pp. 571–584, 2000.

[42] Park, R., Burgess, E. & McKenzie, D., The City, University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1925.

[43] Burgess, E., Juvenile delinquency in a small city. Journal of American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, 6, pp. 724–728, 1916.

[44] Burgess, E., The growth of the city. The City, eds R.E. Park, E.W. Burgess & D. McKenzie, University Press: Chicago, 1925.

[45] White, C., The relation of felonies to environmental factors in Indianapolis. Social Forces, 10, pp. 498–509, 1932.

[46] Lottier, S., Distribution of criminal offences in sectional regions. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 29, pp. 329–344, 1938.

[47] Morris, T., The Criminal Area: A Study in Social Ecology, Routledge and Kegan Paul: London, 1957.

[48] Schmid, C., Urban crime areas: part I. American Sociological Review, 25, pp. 224–237, 1960.

[49] Schmid, C., Urban crime areas: part II. American Sociological Review, 25, pp. 655–678, 1960.

[50] Brantingham, P. & Brantingham, P., The spatial patterning of burglary. Howard Journal, 14(2), pp. 11–23, 1975. 

[51] Saville, G., Assessing risk and crime potentials in neighbourhoods. Paper presented at the 1st Annual International CPTED Association Conference, Calgary, Alberta, October 30–November 1 1996.

[52] Saville, G., New tools to eradicate crime places and crime/niches. Paper presented at the Safer Communities; Strategic Directions in Urban Planning Conference, Melbourne, 10–11 September, 1998.

[53] Herbert, D., Crime delinquency and the urban environment. Progress in Human Geography, 1, pp. 208–239, 1977.

[54] Knights, B., Pascoe, T. & Henchley, A., Sustainability and Crime: Managing and Recognising the Drivers of Crime and Security, Building Research Establishment: Garston, Watford, 2002.

[55] Ravetz, J., Towards a sustainable city region. Town and Country Planning, May, pp. 152–154, 1996.

[56] Roger-Machart, C., The sustainable city – myth or reality? Town and Country Planning, February, pp. 53–55, 1997.

[57] Yiftachel, O. & Hedgecock, D., Urban social sustainability. The planning of an Australian City. Cities, 10(2), pp. 139–157, 1993.

[58] Goodchild, B., Housing design. Urban form and sustainable development. Town Planning Review, 2(65), pp. 143–158, 1994.

[59] Cozens, P., Sustainable urban development and crime prevention through environmental design for the British City: towards an effective urban environmentalism for the 21st century. Cities: The International Journal of Urban Policy and Planning, 19(2), pp. 129–137, 2002.

[60] Cozens, P., Planning, crime and urban sustainability. Sustainable Development and Planing III, Vol. 1, eds A. Kungolas, C. Brebbia, & E. Beriatos, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, WIT Press: Southampton, pp. 187–196, 2007.

[61] Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR). Monitoring Progress – Indicators for the Strategy for Sustainable Development in the United Kingdom, 1999. http://environment.detr.gov.uk/sustainable/quality/monitor/index.htm

[62] Dewberry, E., Designing out crime: insights from eco-design. Security Journal, 16(1), pp. 51–62, 2003.

[63] Australian Government. ESD Design Guide for Australian Government Buildings, Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra, 2006.

[64] Sarkissian Associates Planners. Australian Capital Territory’s Crime Prevention and Urban Design Resource Manual, Department of Urban Services: Canberra, Australia, 2000.

[65] Brantingham, P., Brantingham, P. & Molumby, T., Perceptions of crime in a dreadful enclosure. Ohio Journal of Science, 77(6), pp. 256–261, 1977.

[66] Vrij, A. & Winkel, W., Characteristics of the built environment and fear of crime: a research note on interventions in unsafe locations. Deviant Behavior, 12, pp. 203–215, 1991.

[67] Hale, C., Fear of crime: a review of the literature. The International Review of Victimology, 4, pp. 79–150. 1996.

[68] Harries, K., Filters, fears, and photos. Speculations and explorations in the geography of crime. Analyzing Crime Patterns. Frontiers of Practice, eds V. Goldsmith, P.G. McGuire, J.H. Mollenkopf & T.A. Ross, Sage Publications: California, 2000.

[69] Scott, J., A Matter of Record, Polity Press and Basil Blackwell Inc., 1990.

[70] Guerry, A.M., Essai sur la Statistique Morale de la France avec Cartes, Crochard: Paris, 1833.

[71] Quetelet, A., Sur L’homme et le Development de ses Facultes; Essai de Physique Sociale, Bachelier: Paris, 1835.

[72] Fletcher, J., Moral statistics of England and Wales. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society of London, 12, pp. 151–335, 1849.

[73] Nasar, J. & Fisher, B., ‘Hot spots’ of fear and crime: a multi-method investigation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13, pp. 187–206, 1993.

[74] Lupton, D., Dangerous places and the unpredictable stranger: constructions of fear of crime. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 32(1), pp. 1–15, 1999.

[75] Jefferson, C., Rowe, J. & Brebbia, C., (eds), The Sustainable Street: The Environmental, Human and Economic Aspects of Street Design and Management (Advances in Architecture), WIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2001.

[76] Lynch, K., The Image of the City, MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1960.

[77] Jacobs, J., The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Vintage Books: New York, 1961.

[78] Angel, S., Discouraging Crime Through City Planning, University of California Press: California, 1968.

[79] Jeffery, C., Crime prevention and control through environmental engineering. Criminologica, 7, pp. 35–58, 1969.

[80] Jeffery, C.R., Crime Prevention through Environmental Design, Sage Publications: Beverly Hills, 1971.

[81] Wilson, J. & Kelling, G., The police and neighbourhood safety. ‘Broken windows’. The Atlantic Monthly, 3, pp. 29–38, 1982.

[82] Skogan, M. & Maxfi eld, M., Reactions to Crime Project, Centre for Urban Affairs, Northwest University: Evanston, IL, 1980.

[83] Lewis, D. & Salem, G., Fear of Crime; Incivility and the Production of a Social Problem, Transactions: New Brunswick, 1986.

[84] Nair, G., Ditton, J. & Phillips, S., Environmental improvements and the fear of crime. British Journal of Criminology, 33(4), pp. 555–561, 1993.

[85] Kelling, G.L. & Coles, C., Fixing Broken Windows. Restoring Order and Reducing Crime in Our Communities, Touchstone, Simon and Schuster: New York, 1996.

[86] Cozens, P., Investigating defensible space and the criminogenic capacity of characteristic British housing designs, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Glamorgan, 2000.

[87] Cozens, P., Hillier, D. & Prescott, G., Defensible space: burglars and police evaluate urban residential design. Security Journal, 14(3), pp. 43–62, 2001.

[88] Moffat, R., Crime prevention through environmental design – a management perspective, Canadian Journal of Criminology, 25(4), pp. 19–31, 1983.

[89] Cozens, P., Hillier, D. & Prescott, G., Crime and the design of residential property. Exploring the theoretical background. Property Management, 19(2), pp. 136–164, 2001.

[90] Saville, G. & Cleveland, G., 2nd generation CPTED: an antidote to the social Y2K virus of urban design. Paper presented at the 2nd Annual International CPTED Conference, Orlando, Florida, 3–5 December 1997, www.cpted.net

[91] Plaster Carter, S., Community CPTED. The Journal of the International Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Association, 1(1), pp. 15–24, 2002.

[92] Sarkissian, W. & Perglut, D., The Community Participation Handbook, 2nd edn, Impact Press: Sydney, Australia, 1994.

[93] Sarkissian, W. & Walsh, K., (eds), The Community Participation in Practice: Casebook, Murdoch University, Institute for Science and Technology Policy: Perth, Australia, 1994.

[94] Saville, G., Crime Problems, Community Solutions: Environmental Criminology as a Developing Prevention Strategy, AAG Publications, Vancouver, British Columbia, 1995.

[95] Sarkissian, W., Cook, A. & Walsh, K., (eds), The Community Participation in Practice: A Practical Guide, Institute for Science and Technology Policy: Perth, Australia, 1997.

[96] McKay, T., Empty Spaces, Dangerous Places. International Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Association (ICA), http://www.cpted.net/articles/empty.htm, 1999.

[97] Kraut, D., Hanging out the no vacancy sign: eliminating the blight of vacant buildings from urban areas. New York University Law Review, 74, pp. 1139–1177, 1999.

[98] Ross, C. & Mirowsky, J., Disorder and decay: the concept and measurement of perceived neighbourhood disorder. Urban Affairs Review, 34(3), pp. 412–432, 1999.

[99] Armitage, R., An Evaluation of Secured by Design Housing Schemes Throughout the West Yorkshire Area, University of Huddersfi eld: Huddersfi eld, 1999.

[100] Brown, J., An Evaluation of the Secured by Design Initiative in Gwent, South Wales. MSc Scarman Centre for the Study of Public Order, University of Leicester, 1999.

[101] Pascoe, T., Evaluation of Secured by Design in Public Sector Housing. Final Report. Building Research Establishment: Watford, 1999.

[102] Cozens, P., Pascoe, T. & Hillier, D., The policy and practice of secured by design (SBD). Crime Prevention and Community Safety: An International Journal, 6(1), pp. 13–29, 2004.

[103] Taylor, R.B., Gottfredson, S.D., Brower, S., Drain, W. & Dockett, K., Toward a resident-based model of community crime prevention: urban territoriality, social networks and design. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10, Ms. 2044, 1980.

[104] Poyner, B., A model for action. Situational Crime Prevention: From Theory into Practice, eds K. Heal & G. Laycock, Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce: London, 1986.

[105] Clarke, R. & Mayhew, P., (eds), Designing Out Crime. Home Offi ce and Research Planning Unit, HMSO: London, 1980.

[106] Clarke, R., (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies, Harrow and Heston: Albany, NY1992.

[107] Clarke, R., Situational crime prevention. Building a Safer Society: Strategic Approaches to Crime Prevention, eds M. Tonry & D. Farrington, University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1995.

[108] Cornish, D. & Clarke, R., Opportunities, precipitators and criminal decisions: a reply to Wortley’s critique of situational crime prevention. Crime Prevention Studies, 16, pp. 41–96, 2003.

[109] Fisher, B. & Nasar, J., Fear of crime in relation to three exterior site features: prospect, refuge and escape. Environment and Behavior, 24(1), pp. 34–65, 1992.

[110] Saville, G. & Cleveland, G., 2nd generation CPTED: an antidote to the social Y2K virus of urban design. Paper presented at the 3rd Annual International CPTED Conference, Washington, DC, December 14–16 1998,  http://www.pac2durham.com/resources/schools.pdf, visited 24th May 2007, 1998. 

[111] Kennedy, D., Architectural concerns regarding security and premises liability. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 10(2), pp. 105–129, 1993. 

[112] Gordon, C. & Brill, W., The Expanding Role of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Premises Liability. National Institute of Justice, Research Brief, US Department of Justice, Washington, DC, April 1996.

[113] Grant, S., Liability and public authorities for environmental design in Australia. Proceedings of the International CPTED Conference, September 24–27, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 303–310, 2001.

[114] Infi eld, P., Personal discussion, the Suzy Lamplugh trust’s ‘responding to Workplace violence’ seminar, London Voluntary Resource Centre, Holloway, London, 10 October 2000.

[115] Offi ce of Crime Prevention. Prevention Crime: State Community Safety and Crime Prevention Strategy, Department of Premier and Cabinet: Perth, Western Australia, 2004.

[116] Commonwealth of Australia. Sustainable Cities. The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage, Canberra, Australia, http://www.aph.gov.au/house/committee/environ/cities/report.htm, 2005.

[117] Cozens, P., Hillier, D. & Prescott, G., The sustainable and the criminogenic. The case for new-build housing projects in Britain. Property Management, 17(3), pp. 252–261, 1999.

[118] Western Australian Planning Commission (WAPC). Designing Out Crime Guidelines, WAPC: Perth, Western Australian, 2006. http://www.wapc.wa.gov.au

[119] Western Australian Planning Commission (WAPC). Designing Out Crime Planning Bulletin No. 79, WAPC: Perth, Western Australian, 2006. www.wapc.wa.gov.au

[120] Schneider, R. & Kitchen, T., Planning for Crime Prevention: A Transatlantic Perspective, Routledge: London, New York, 2001.

[121] Government of Western Australia. Environmental Protection Act, 1986. Government of Western Australia, State Law Publisher: Perth, WA, 1986.

[122] Allatt, P., Residential security: containment and displacement of burglary. Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 23(1), pp. 99–116, 1984.

[123] Budd, T., Burglary of domestic dwellings: fi ndings from the British Crime Survey. Home Offi ce Statistical Bulletin 4/99, Home Offi ce: London, 1999.

[124] Knights, B. & Pascoe, T., Burglaries Reduced by Cost Effective Target Hardening, DETR Contract Number cc1675, Building Research Establishment, Garston, 2000.

[125] Tilley, N. & Webb, J., Burglary Reduction: Findings from Safer Cities Schemes, Crime Prevention Unit Paper 51, Home Offi ce: London, 1994.

[126] Topping, P. & Pascoe, T., Countering household burglary through the secured by design scheme: does it work? An assessment of the evidence, 1989–1999. Security Journal, 14(4), pp. 71–78, 2000.

[127] Tseloni, A., Wittebrood, K., Farrell, G. & Pease, K., Burglary victimization in England and Wales, the United States and the Netherlands: a cross-national comparative test of routine activities and lifestyle theories. The British Journal of Criminology, 44(1), pp. 66–91, 2004.

[128] Merry, S., Defensible space undefended: social factors in crime prevention through environmental design. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 16(3), pp. 397–422, 1981.

[129] Atlas, R., The other side of defensible space. Security Management, pp. 63–66, March 1991.