OPEN ACCESS
The context for planning at the turn of the 19th century, in a newly industrialized world, was based on the need to find solutions to overcrowding and dire urban conditions. Planning decisions made in the post-World War II period were primarily motivated by the desire to reconstruct war torn cities. The forces of influence for planning and development in modern advanced capitalist societies are arguably set within the context of sustainable development. Many developed countries have witnessed a dramatic change in their territorial structures. Urban centres are extending into rural areas and surrounding hinterland, where large tracts of land are being developed in a ‘leapfrog’ low-density pattern. Urban sprawl is the outcome of both statistical realities such as population growth and the psychological catalyst that ‘quality of life’is superior in the suburbs. This change has brought with it challenges commonly associated with unpredicted growth: traffic congestion, restricted access to education and a perceived lack of affordable housing. Smart growth, as an alternative philosophical and methodological approach towards urban planning may provide the antidote for the negative effects of urban sprawl. This paper examines the underlying theory of decentrist and centrist development and the emergence of the smart growth movement as the antonym of urban sprawl.
centrist approach, compact city, decentrist approach, network city, smart growth, urban planning, urban sprawl.
[1] Grant, J., Mixed use in theory and practice: Canadian experience with implementing a planning principle. Journal of the American Planning Association, 68(1), pp. 71–84, 2002.
[2] Jongman, R.H.G., Landscape planning for biological diversity in Europe. Landscape Research, 27(2), pp. 187–195, 2002.
[3] Neal, P., Urban Villages and the Making of Communities, Spon Press: London, p. 31, 2003.
[4] Jenks, M., Burton, E. & Williams, K., The Compact City: A Sustainable Urban Form?, Oxford Brookes University: Oxford, UK, p. 30, 1995.
[5] Goodwin Procter, Urban sprawl and smart growth: state and local governments adopting ‘smart’solutions to a ‘growing’ problem. Environmental Law Advisory, September 2002.
[6] Ward, S., Planning and Urban Change, Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd: London, 1994.
[7] Howard, E., To-morrow: A Peaceful Path To Real Reform, Swan Sonnenschein: London, 1898.
[8] Fishman, R., cited in Fainstein, S. & Campbell, S., Readings in Urban Theory, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.: Oxford, 2nd edn, 2002.
[9] Castells, M., The Rise of the Network Society, Blackwell Publishers: Oxford, 2000.
[10] Castells, M., cited in Giddens, A., Sociology, Blackwell Publishers Ltd: Oxford, UK, 2001.
[11] Duany, A., Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream, North Point Press: New York, pp. xiii, 49, 2000.
[12] Breheny, M., The compact city: an introduction. Built Environment, 18(4), pp. 241–302, 1992.
[13] Blowers, A., Planning for a Sustainable Environment, A report by the Town and Country Planning Association, Earthscan: London, 1993.
[14] Burton, E., The compact city: just or just compact? A preliminary analysis. Urban Studies, 37(11), pp. 1947–1967, 2000.
[15] Moles, R., Kelly, R., O’Regan, B., Ravetz, J. & McEvoy, D., Methodologies for the Estimation of Sustainable Settlement Size, Report prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency by Centre of Environmental Research, University of Limerick and Centre for Urban and Regional Ecology, University of Manchester, p. 33, 2000.
[16] Ewing, R., Schmid, T., Killingstworth, R., Zlot, A. & Raudenbush, S., Relationship between urban sprawl and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(1), pp. 47–57, 2003.
[17] Bengston, D.O., Fletcher, J. & Nelson, K., Public policies for managing urban growth and protecting open space: policy instruments and lessons learned in the United States. Landscape and Urban Planning, 69, pp. 271–286, 2004.
[18] Robinson, L., Newell, J. & Marzluff, J., Twenty-five years of sprawl in the Seattle region: growth management responses and implications for conservation. Landscape and Urban Planning, 71(1), pp. 51–72, 2005.
[19] Jacobs, J., The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Cape: London, 1961.
[20] Wiewel, W. & Schaffer, K., Learning to think as a region: connecting suburban sprawl and city poverty. European Planning Studies, 9(5), pp. 593–611, 2001.
[21] Munoz, F., Lock living: urban sprawl in Mediterranean cities. Cities, 20(6), pp. 381–385, 2003.
[22] Taylor, N., Urban Planning Theory since 1945, Sage Publications Ltd: London, 2003.
[23] Baum, H., Smart growth and school reform: what if we talked about race and took community seriously? Journal of the American Planning Association, 70(1), pp. 1–14, 2004.
[24] Garcia, D. & Riera, P., Expansion versus density in Barcelona: a valuation exercise. Urban Studies, 40(10), pp. 1925–1936, 2003.
[25] Frenkel, A., The potential effect of national growth-management policy on urban sprawl and the depletion of open spaces and farmland. Land Use Policy, 21(4), pp. 357–369, 2004.
[26] Egan, J., The Egan Review: Skills for Sustainable Communities, Office of Deputy PrimeMinister, RIBA Enterprises: London, p. 3, 2004.
[27] Frumkin, H., Healthy places: exploring the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), pp. 1451–1456, 2003.
[28] Jackson, R., The impact of the built environment on health: an emerging field. American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), pp. 1382–1385, 2003.
[29] Quaid, A., The Sustainability Inventory: a tool to assist US municipalities advance towards sustainability, Local Environment, 7(4), pp. 447–452, 2002.
[30] Douthwaite, R., The Growth Illusion: How Economic Growth has Enriched the Few, Impoverished the Many and Endangered the Planet, Lilliput Press: Dublin, 1992.
[31] Porter, D., Making Smart Growth Work, Urban Land Institute: New York, p. 11, 2002.
[32] Tregoning, H., Agyeman, J. & Shenot, C., Sprawl, smart growth and sustainability. Local Environment, 7(4), pp. 341–347, 2002.
[33] Joyce, M., Smart growth: practical or P.R.? Real Estate Issues, 26(1), pp. 39–42, 2001.
[34] Beatley, T., Green Urbanism: Learning from European Cities, Island Press: Washington, 2000.
[35] Bunce, S., The emergence of ‘smart growth’ intensification in Toronto: environment and economy in the new Official Plan. Local Environment, 9(2), pp. 177–191, 2004.
[36] Godschalk, D., Land use planning challenges: coping with conflicts in visions of sustainable development and livable communities. Journal of the American Planning Association, 70(1), pp. 1–5, 2004.
[37] Haines, A., Smart growth: a solution to sprawl? Land Use Tracker, 2(4), pp. 20–24, 2003.
[38] Burchell, R. & Mukherji, S., Conventional development versus managed growth: the costs of sprawl. American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), pp. 1534–1540, 2003.
[39] American Planning Association, Planning for Smart Growth 2002: State of the States, p. 22, http://www.planning.org/growingsmart/pdf/states2002.pdf, 2002.
[40] Corbett, J. & Corbett, M., Designing Sustainable Communities: Learning from Village Homes, Island Press: Washington, DC, p. 28, 2000.
[41] Hall, P. & Pfeiffer, U., Urban Future 21: A Global Agenda for Twenty-First Century Cities, FN Spon Ltd: London, 2000.
[42] Dittmar, H. & Ohland, G., The New Transit Town: Best Practices in Transit-Oriented Development, Island Press: Washington, DC, 2004.
[43] Pruess, I. & Vemuri, A., ‘Smart growth’ and dynamic modelling: implications for quality of life in Montgomery County, Maryland. Ecological Modelling, 171, pp. 415–432, 2004.
[44] Yang, A., Home builders shun smart-growth initiative. Architecture, 92(4), p. 22, 2003.
[45] Schill, M.H., cited in Downs, A., Growth Management and Affordable Housing: Do they
Conflict?, Brookings Institution Press: Washington, DC, 2004.