Memorable Tourism Experience in Ecotourism

The rapid advancement of digital technologies has fundamentally transformed the tourism industry, giving rise to the concept of smart tourism destinations. Smart Tourism Application (STA) have become an essential component of tourism by enabling tourists to access real-time information, personalized recommendations, navigation services, digital booking systems, and interactive destination content through mobile technologies [1]. Rather than merely facilitating travel planning, STA increasingly shape tourists’ experiences before, during, and after their visits by creating more connected, efficient, and personalized tourism journeys [2].

Indonesia has experienced significant growth in the implementation of smart tourism initiatives, particularly in destinations with distinct tourism characteristics such as Bali, Surabaya, and Lampung. These destinations represent three tourism ecosystems. Bali is internationally recognized for its cultural and heritage tourism; Surabaya is an urban tourism destination characterized by smart city initiatives and digital public services; and Lampung is known for nature-based and conservation tourism. The diversity of these destination types provides a unique setting for understanding how smart tourism technologies influence tourist experiences across different tourism contexts. Therefore, examining these destinations within a single conceptual framework offers an opportunity to extend smart tourism literature beyond a single-destination perspective and explore whether similar technological mechanisms operate across culturally, geographically, and functionally diverse destinations.

Recent tourism studies suggest that the value of STA extends beyond information provision. Digital technologies increasingly facilitate Co-Creation Experiences (CCE), in which tourists actively shape their own travel experiences through interactions with destinations, local communities, tourism providers, and other tourists [3, 4]. Through destination applications, tourists can leave reviews, share experiences, customize itineraries, join digital communities, and participate in interactive tourism activities. Consequently, STA are expected to serve as important antecedents of CCE by encouraging greater tourist participation and engagement throughout the travel journey [5].

However, tourists may differ considerably in their ability to utilize smart tourism technologies effectively. Such differences are often attributed to Digital Literacy (DL), which refers to an individual's ability to access, evaluate, understand, and use digital information and technologies effectively [6]. Tourists with higher DL are generally better able to navigate tourism applications, interpret digital information, and engage with technology-enabled tourism services [6]. Therefore, DL may strengthen the positive influence of STA on CCE. In this study, DL is conceptualized as a moderating variable that enhances tourists’ ability to transform technological features into meaningful participatory experiences.

The growing importance of CCE is also closely associated with the development of Memorable Tourism Experience (MTE) [7]. MTEs are those that are positively remembered after the trip ends [8, 9]. Previous studies indicate that active participation and personal involvement in tourism activities contribute significantly to memory formation because tourists become emotionally and cognitively engaged in the process of creating experiences. Consequently, tourists who participate more actively in co-creation activities are expected to develop stronger MTE.

Nevertheless, not all co-created experiences are equally memorable. The strength of the relationship between CCE and MTE may depend on tourists’ emotional bonds with the destination. This emotional bond is conceptualized as Destination Attachment (DA), which reflects the degree of emotional and functional connection tourists develop toward a destination [10]. Tourists who possess stronger DA are more likely to assign personal meaning to their experiences, thereby increasing the likelihood that co-created experiences become memorable. Accordingly, DA is proposed as a moderating variable that strengthens the influence of CCE on MTE [11, 12].

Although substantial research has examined smart tourism technologies, CCE, DL, DA, and MTE independently, limited studies have integrated these constructs within a single framework. More importantly, previous studies have largely focused on direct relationships while paying limited attention to the boundary conditions that determine when and for whom smart tourism technologies generate meaningful experiences. This study addresses this gap by proposing an integrated model in which DL and DA serve as moderators explaining the effectiveness of STA and CCE.

The novelty of this study lies not merely in combining existing constructs but in explaining how technological capability and emotional attachment jointly shape tourists’ experience creation processes. Furthermore, by examining Bali, Surabaya, and Lampung, three destinations representing cultural tourism, urban tourism, and nature-based tourism, respectively, this study provides a broader empirical context for understanding the applicability of smart tourism theories across diverse destination settings in Indonesia.

Therefore, this study aims to examine the effect of STA on CCE; investigate the moderating role of DL in this relationship; analyze the influence of CCE on MTE; and evaluate the moderating role of DA in strengthening the relationship between CCE and MTE.

This study employed a quantitative research approach to examine the relationships among STA, DL, CCE, DA, and MTE. Quantitative methods are appropriate for testing theoretical relationships using numerical data and statistical analysis techniques [17]. The study focused on three Indonesian tourism destinations with distinct characteristics: Bali, Surabaya, and Lampung.

A purposive sampling technique was employed to select respondents who met specific eligibility criteria. The respondents were required to (1) be at least 17 years old, (2) have visited Bali, Surabaya, or Lampung within the previous 12 months, and (3) have used tourism-related digital applications such as destination apps, online travel platforms, navigation applications, review platforms, or online booking systems during their travel experience. Purposive sampling was considered appropriate because the study specifically targeted tourists with prior experience using smart tourism technologies.

Data were collected through an online questionnaire distributed via social media platforms, tourism communities, and travel-related online networks. A total of 509 valid responses were obtained and used for analysis. Table 1 shows that the respondents comprised 170 tourists from Bali (33.4%), 269 from Surabaya (52.8%), and 70 from Lampung (13.8%). In addition to destination distribution, demographic information, including gender, age, visit frequency, tourist type (domestic or international), and tourism application usage profile, was collected to provide a comprehensive description of the sample characteristics.

Table 1. Respondent profile

The questionnaire items were adapted from established scales in previous tourism and technology studies to ensure content validity. All items were measured using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The measurement instrument included constructs of STA, DL, CCE, DA, and MTE.

The collected data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) with SmartPLS software. PLS-SEM was selected because it is suitable for complex models involving moderation effects, does not require multivariate normality, and is widely recommended for predictive and exploratory research [18]. The moderation analysis examined whether DL strengthened the relationship between STA and CCE, and whether DA moderated the relationship between CCE and MTE.

This methodological approach enabled a comprehensive examination of how technological, experiential, and emotional factors interact in shaping tourists’ memorable experiences across diverse tourism contexts in Indonesia.

5.1 Co-Creation Experience on Memorable Tourism Experience

The results of the study show that CCE has a positive and significant effect on MTE, as indicated by a p-value of 0.000. These findings show that the higher the level of tourist involvement in co-creation activities during a trip, the greater the likelihood of forming a MTE that will remain in long-term memory. Therefore, the willing participation of tourists in value co-creation through interaction and collaboration during the visit is an important influence on the development of MTE.

This finding is consistent with recent tourism studies that emphasize the role of active participation in enhancing tourism experiences. Co-creation allows tourists to move beyond passive consumption and become active contributors to the experience creation process. Such involvement generates stronger emotional engagement, deeper personal meaning, and a greater sense of ownership over the experience, all of which contribute to the formation of MTE. Doan and Raj [23] found that interactive participation and social engagement significantly enhance tourists’ experiential value and emotional involvement. Similarly, Juliana et al. [24] demonstrated that co-created experiences involving interaction with local stakeholders and storytelling activities contribute positively to tourists’ memory formation. Angeloni [25] further reported that participatory tourism experiences strengthen tourists’ emotional connections with destinations, thereby increasing the likelihood of creating memorable experiences.

The results also support the experiential perspective on tourism, which argues that MTE are created not only by destination attributes but also by tourists’ active involvement in the production of experiences. When tourists participate in cultural activities, community-based tourism programs, conservation initiatives, or interactive tourism experiences, they are more likely to perceive the experience as meaningful and unique. As suggested by Yin et al. [26], smart tourism environments facilitate co-creation by enabling tourists to interact, customize experiences, and engage more deeply with destinations, ultimately enhancing memorable tourism outcomes.

From a practical perspective, destination managers should focus on developing tourism products that encourage active tourist participation rather than passive observation. Designing interactive experiences, community engagement programs, cultural workshops, and technology-supported tourism activities can strengthen tourists’ involvement and contribute to more MTE. Therefore, co-creation should be viewed as a strategic mechanism to enhance tourist experiences and increase destination competitiveness.

5.2 Smart Tourism Application on Co-Creation Experience

The data indicate that STA positively and significantly influences CCE, with a p-value of 0.000. This finding suggests that the positive influence of STA on CCE occurs regardless of tourists’ levels of DL. In other words, tourists with both higher and lower levels of DL can similarly benefit from STA that facilitate participation and engagement during their travel experiences.

One possible explanation is that contemporary STA are increasingly designed with user-friendly interfaces, intuitive navigation, and automated features that reduce the need for advanced digital skills. As a result, tourists can easily access information, receive recommendations, and interact with tourism services without requiring extensive technological knowledge. Recent studies have also shown that the effectiveness of smart tourism technologies is often driven more by system quality, ease of use, and perceived usefulness than by users’ digital competencies [27]. Furthermore, smart tourism platforms are becoming increasingly accessible and inclusive, enabling a wider range of tourists to participate in digitally supported tourism experiences [3].

The insignificant moderating effect also suggests that STAs have become sufficiently mature and standardized to support co-creation activities across different user groups. As tourists increasingly rely on mobile applications for travel planning, navigation, communication, and information search, the benefits of these technologies may be experienced relatively equally regardless of individual differences in DL. Similar findings have been reported in recent smart tourism studies, which suggest that system quality, perceived ease of use, and user-friendly design are more influential in shaping tourists' technology experiences than individual technological competencies [27, 28].

From a practical perspective, destination managers and application developers should continue prioritizing usability, accessibility, and user-centered design when developing STA. Rather than focusing solely on improving tourists’ DL, greater benefits may be achieved by enhancing application functionality, personalization, and ease of use. These findings suggest that well-designed STA can facilitate CCE for a broad range of tourists, making digital tourism experiences more inclusive and accessible.

5.3 Digital Literacy as a moderator of Smart Tourism Applications and Co-Creation Experience

The results of the study indicate that DL does not moderate the relationship between STA and CCE, as shown by the p-value = 0.264, which is well above the significance threshold of 0.05. This finding suggests that the positive influence of STA on CCE remains relatively consistent across tourists with different levels of DL. Therefore, the ability of STA to encourage tourist participation and engagement does not depend on tourists' DL.

One possible explanation is that contemporary STA have become increasingly user-friendly, intuitive, and accessible. Features such as personalized recommendations, GPS navigation, automatic translations, digital booking systems, and interactive destination information reduce the need for advanced technological competencies. As a result, tourists can effectively utilize these applications regardless of their DL levels. Recent studies have suggested that the success of smart tourism technologies is often driven by system usability, perceived usefulness, and ease of use rather than by individual technological capabilities. A possible explanation is that contemporary STA are increasingly designed to be intuitive, user-friendly, and accessible to a wide range of users. Consequently, the effectiveness of smart tourism technologies is often determined by system usability, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use rather than by individual technological capabilities [28-30].

The insignificant moderating effect may also indicate that digital technologies have become deeply integrated into everyday travel behavior. Many tourists are already familiar with mobile applications for navigation, accommodation booking, transportation services, and information searching. Consequently, differences in DL no longer substantially affect how tourists engage with STA. In this context, STA functions as a universally accessible tool that facilitates CCE across a broad range of users.

This finding contributes to the smart tourism literature by suggesting that DL may no longer be a critical boundary condition in the relationship between smart tourism technologies and CCE. Instead, the effectiveness of STA appears to depend more on application quality, functionality, and user-centered design. Therefore, destination managers and application developers should focus on improving usability, personalization, and interactive features rather than assuming that higher DL is necessary for tourists to engage in co-creation activities.

5.4 Destination Attachment as a moderator of Co-Creation Experience and Memorable Tourism Experience

The findings reveal that DA has a significant negative moderating effect on the relationship between CCE and MTE (β = -0.073, p < 0.001). This result indicates that higher levels of DA are associated with a weaker influence of CCE on the formation of MTE. In other words, as tourists become more emotionally attached to a destination, the contribution of co-creation activities to generating memorable experiences decreases.

A possible explanation for this negative moderating effect is that tourists with high levels of DA have already developed strong emotional bonds and personal meanings associated with the destination. As a result, their MTE are often shaped by feelings of familiarity, belonging, and emotional connection rather than by newly created participatory experiences. Consequently, the additional contribution of co-creation activities to MTE becomes less pronounced as DA increases.

This finding is consistent with recent DA literature suggesting that emotionally attached tourists tend to revisit destinations for their symbolic meanings, emotional satisfaction, and sense of place rather than for specific activities undertaken during the visit. In such cases, tourists derive memorable experiences from reconnecting with places that are already meaningful to them, reducing the relative importance of co-creation activities in generating new memories [31]. Furthermore, tourists with strong DA may prioritize emotional continuity and nostalgic experiences over novelty-seeking behaviors. While CCE are particularly important for first-time visitors or tourists with weaker emotional bonds, highly attached tourists may already possess a rich collection of memories associated with the destination [32, 33]. Therefore, additional participatory experiences contribute relatively less to memory formation than the emotional attachment accumulated through previous visits and personal experiences.

The negative moderation effect suggests that DA weakens the positive relationship between CCE and MTE. In other words, the beneficial effect of co-creation on memory formation becomes smaller as DA increases. This finding indicates that DA and CCE represent two distinct mechanisms through which MTE can be developed. For tourists with low DA, co-creation activities play a crucial role in creating memorable experiences. However, for highly attached tourists, memorable experiences are influenced more strongly by their existing emotional bond with the destination than by participatory activities undertaken during the visit.