Role of Employee Commitment and Citizenship Behaviour in Sustaining Institutional Performance and Governance in Higher Education Systems

2.1 Organizational commitment

Commitment is the reflection of loyalty, acceptability, identification, and dependency to achieve the goals and objectives [41]. The concept of commitment derives from employees' assessment which is based on the level of dedication shown by the employee [35]. OC is one of the hidden yet highly effective components of employees' behaviour at the workplace [42]. OC can be described as the employee's ability to identify himself with the organisation [35]. OC can also be explained as the feeling of belongingness [29]. OC can also be explained as a concept where the employees are loyal and put their energy into the organisation [43]. OC can also be explained as an employee’s belief in the organisation that helps in reducing the intention to leave the organisation [41, 44]. Also, Organ [45] explained that it's an employee’s belief in the organisation’s objectives [46], his belief in staying connected and serving the organisation. OC serves as the employees' identification with the organisation and their involvement in it [47]. OC is also defined as the individual’s active participation in the organisation and their strong attachment to the organisation [48]. Three main factors define OC: (i) an individual inclined to show substantial dedication towards the organisation, (ii) trust in the organisation’s goals and objectives, and (iii) a great desire to be connected to the organisation [49]. A model of OC was presented by Organ et al. [50], which identified three dimensions of OC: affective, normative, and CC.

According to Lin and Peng [51], OC is the devotion of an employee towards their employer. OC can develop only if both the employee and employer are ready to stay connected with each other. According to Podsakoff and MacKenzie [52], the involvement of an individual in the organisation and its activity is described as OC. An individual who is morally convinced will always feel compelled to give loyalty to their organisation. They strongly believe that it is their moral responsibility. In all of the organisation, OC influences productivity and efficiency [48, 53]. Employees put in a lot of hard work to do well for the establishment, longing to be associated with the organisation and willing to accept its objectives.

2.2 Organisational citizenship behaviour

Organisational performance and effectiveness depend on the prosocial behaviour of employees, who are willingly prepared to go above the assigned roles and obligations [54]. The voluntary behaviour of the employees is called OCB. Many researchers and academicians from all over the world have built their interest in OCB itself [50], its determinants and its antecedents. OCB is the individual behaviour that isn’t recognized directly by the formal reward system [55]. Engaging in OCB is the personal choice of an individual; it’s not forced on the individual, but it certainly encourages effectiveness and enhances productivity. OCB can also be defined as the prosocial behaviour and helping behaviour of an individual. OCB directly affects the members of an organisation and the organisation itself in a very positive way. OCB is the employee behaviour at the workplace that is not included in the employment contract [56, 57]. OCB is the staff conduct that is not included in the job role, but it supports the overall functioning of the organisation [58]. Podsakoff and MacKenzie [52] described OCB as the behaviour of an individual in the workplace that is not mentioned in the job description but that improves and facilitates organisational performance [48]. Such behaviour of an employee involves helping colleagues with a heavy workload, being courteous, defending an organisation, tolerating temporary impositions without any complaints, staying at the workplace after defined working hours, helping new joinees to catch up, and being courteous with colleagues [50, 52].

It has been found that OCB improve employee engagement, job performance, and knowledge sharing [48]. It has also been revealed in the past that OCB improves group cohesiveness and also contributes to the organisational performance and effectiveness [49]. OCB also benefits an organisation in many ways, such as generating creative ideas and offering suggestions to improve organisational culture. Earlier researchers defined OCB in terms of only two factors: serving principles and altruism. Serving principles simply means to maintain the rules and regulations to support team spirit and cooperation, and altruism means helping colleagues at the workplace. In the framework conceptualized by Podsakoff et.al., he claimed that helping behaviour simply means that it’s the willingness of an individual to help colleagues at the workplace. This helping behaviour is also referred to as peace-making in the organisation. Peace-making refers to cheerleading or solving conflicts at the workplace. The second dimension is organisational loyalty, which simply means promoting the organisation to the outsiders, protecting the organisation from external threats and safeguarding the organisation's interests, remaining loyal to the other organisations even in adverse situations [51]. The next dimension is organisational compliance, where employees can accept the organisation’s rules, policies and procedures. In simple words, it's when employees obey organisational norms. The next dimension is civic virtue, which means when an employee participates in the governance policy of the organisation and takes responsibility for the organisation [52]. Here, the employee participates in the organisational meetings and monitors the organisational environment to recognise potential opportunities and threats. It’s a voluntary behaviour of the employee towards innovation. The next dimension is sportsmanship, where an employee is uncomplaining and tolerates the inconvenience at the workplace. The last dimension of OCB is self-development, when the employee tries to improve their skills and abilities to contribute more to the organisation [48, 53].

2.3 Demographic, job-related factors and organisational citizenship behaviour

In a study conducted in China, LePine et al. [54] revealed that females exhibit more citizenship Behaviour in enterprises compared to male employees. Glińska-Neweś and Szostek [55] observed in their study that female teachers of the school are more inclined towards the citizenship behaviour as compared to the male teachers. However, in another study conducted in Iran, it was revealed that males exhibit more citizenship Behaviour as compared to females, as females are more skeptical to unfamiliar things [56]. Another study exposed that males are more inclined towards citizenship behaviour as compared to females in the organisation [57]. Previous study stated that there is no exchange between education & marital status and OCB [58-60]. A study in Mohaghegh Ardabili University stated that marital status affects OCB. Experience plays a significant role in enhancing performance and also affects citizenship behaviour significantly [53, 54]. A similar study conducted in the IT sector stated that employees demonstrate the highest level of OCB as they gain experience and age, and they tend to exhibit more citizenship behaviour. Employees who receive a good paycheck are more satisfied and therefore exhibit a higher level of citizenship behaviour, whereas employees who receive less don’t exhibit citizenship behaviour [61]. Employees at a higher position are likely to interact with everyone in the organisation, which increases the level of commitment and citizenship behaviour [54]. Another study conducted by Patel and Behrani [62] stated that employees who have spent more than 21 years in an organisation tend to exhibit more citizenship behaviour.

2.4 Demographic factors, Job-Related factors and organisational commitment

Several studies have examined the impact of demographic variables on OC. However, the results of these studies were mixed. A study that surveyed healthcare industry employees found that gender affects OC [63]. Another study that surveyed the software industry of Pakistan stated that gender did not affect the OC of employees [64]. Another study conducted stated that gender has no substantial effect on the OC of the employees working in the Turkish Port [65]. Another study conducted in India stated that gender has no significant effect on OC. A research conducted in Nigeria, in which all university teachers participated, found that demographic variables have a strong, positive effect on OC [66]. Another study conducted on 320 employees engaged in manufacturing and service organisations in Nigeria [67] stated that the demographic profile (age, gender, marital status, education level, and job tenure) has a significant effect on OC. It's also assumed [68], theoretically, that years of experience have a substantial and positive effect on the OC, as is also shown in studies conducted by Wu and Shen [69].

2.5 Sustainability in higher education institutions

Across the globe, sustainability has become a major concern and priority for HEIs. Showcasing the unique role of innovation, teaching quality, institutional resilience, and retention of employees [70]. HEIs are recognised as a major contributor to sustainable development. HEIs are engaged in civic engagement and provide education and research as a key role. The potential of HEIs is beyond education and research and serves the major purpose of organisational governance, campus operations, and broader community ecosystem [71]. Within HEIs, sustainability is often addressed through three main elements: (1) education quality encompassing innovation in the curriculum, (2) institution resilience focusing on the organisation, and (3) retention of employees [72]. HEIs play a very crucial role in advancing sustainability with the role it has to play, be it research, education, their respective operations within and outside the campus through the engagement of the community [73]. HEIs are able to bring awareness, knowledge and help in enhancing the skills and abilities of the students. HEIs are able to promote novel technologies and also transfer the results of the research for the benefit of society [74]. Despite the progress in enrollment of students in the HEIs and the number of HEIs increasing, there exist challenges, including limited training of the faculty and a lack of standardized procedure of faculty assessment [75]. From the financial standpoint, long-term sustainability of the HEIs primarily focuses on diverse revenue streams, investment in sustainable infrastructure and making procurement of resources transparent [76]. The efforts of HEIs towards sustainability are often compromised due to a lack of OC of the faculty, a lack of funds, and poor staff capacity [77]. HEIs often face problems related to a shortage of qualified and dedicated faculty, limited funds, and policy incoherence. These problems are setbacks for any HEI to perform and sustain in the market. The field of sustainability is evolving continuously, and HEIs are also adapting sustainability concepts and introducing sustainability programs that can improve an organisation’s resilience, improve teaching quality, and improve job stability. These efforts enhance the employability of the students by creating social awareness and providing skills that are relevant to the industry [78].

Enhancing teaching quality and improving research and development are the driving forces of sustainable innovation, and they can align with the relevant SDG goals. HEIs bridge the gap between societal development and scientific research by collaborating with industries, which helps in innovation, deepening understanding, and converging different scientific domains [79].

2.6 Research methodology

The current study adopted an exploratory and descriptive research design to assess the relationship between OC and OCB and its end sustainability outcome of the faculty in the HEIs. The design is appropriate as it helps in understanding the existing patterns, relationships, and attitudinal tendencies within the academic aspects. The target population for this study comprises faculty employed in the higher education institutions in Uttarakhand in North India. Both public and private sector universities were considered to ensure representation of faculty. A simple random technique was employed to ensure that selection bias is minimised and improve generalizability. The sample size of the study consists of 300 faculty members associated with different departments and institutional types (Table 1). The study used a combination of both library research methods and field surveys. Primary data was collected through a structured online questionnaire, which was distributed to the department heads and deans. These authorities were well informed about the purpose of the study and facilitated the circulation of the questionnaire among the faculty members of their respective departments.

Table 1. Demography table

The questionnaire was divided into two sections:

Section A: captured the respondents’ demographic and occupational characteristics, which include age, gender, marital status, area of belongingness, salary, and experience.

Section B: focused on measuring the key constructs considered in the study, namely OC, OCB, and SO Measurement Variables, like OC scale was used to assess commitment. The scale comprises three dimensions, namely AC (8 items), NC (8 items), and CC (8 items). OCB was assessed using Podsakoff et. al.'s scale of 24 items distributed across 5 dimensions, namely, Altruism (A) (5), civic virtue (CV) (5), courtesy (C) (5), sportsmanship (S) (5), and conscientiousness (CN) (4). Lastly, SO had three dimensions, namely, teaching quality, organisational resilience and employment stability. All items were measured using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated the results indicated a satisfactory reliability. AC 0.910, NC 0.889, CC 0.901, OCB 0.953, and sustainable outcome 0.918. All values exceed the threshold value of 0.70, which indicates strong internal consistency. To establish construct reliability, Composite Reliability (CR) was assessed. The CR values were found to be within acceptable limits, further confirming the robustness of the measurement model. To assess the complex relationship between the constructs, Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was used. This technique is suitable particularly for predictive modelling and exploratory research, especially when complex models are to be dealt with involving multiple latent constructs and indicators. A comprehensive understanding of the relationships between OC, OCB and SO can be understood as PLS-SEM enables simultaneous examination of both the measurement and structural models.

2.7 Research objectives

The purpose of the study is to study the impact of Demographic and job-related factors on OC and OCB. Another purpose of the study is to assess the impact of OC components on the OCB of faculty engaged in HEIs in Uttarakhand, North India. Lastly, the objective of the study is to ascertain the SO of OCB that improves the teaching quality, organization resilience, and job stability.

To measure the sample adequacy Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) was used. It can be observed that the KMO value is 0.923 (Table 2), which exceeds the threshold value of 0.60. According to Kaiser, if the value exceeds 0.60 its considered marvellous. Hence, it indicates excellent suitability for factor analysis. It can also be observed that Bartlett’s test of Sphericity is statistically significant.

Table 2. Factor analysis

The measurement model was evaluated by examining the Cronbach Alpha (CA), Composite Reliability (CR), & Average Variance Extracted (AVE) (Table 3). These CA scores (all above 0.8) indicate excellent internal consistency for each measurement scale used in this organisational study. Simply put, this means that the questions used to measure each concept (affirmative impairment, normative impairment, continuous impairment, and OCB) work together coherently and reliably to measure what they should measure. High values (above the commonly accepted limit of 0.7) suggest that employees have consistently answered related questions in each category, giving researchers the confidence that the research tool captures significant and reliable information about employee attitudes and behaviours. Each measurement scale used in this organisational study has excellent reliability, as indicated by these composite reliability points (all above 0.88). To simplify, this indicates that the issues used to evaluate each concept – AC, NC, CC, OCB, and sustainability – produce consistently accurate results in evaluating these behaviours and attitudes in the workplace. High values (well above the commonly accepted limit of 0.7) provide strong evidence that these measurement scales are robust and reliable, giving researchers and managers confidence that their assessment tool accurately captures significant information on how employees connect to their work requirements, which are necessary to remain, perform output costs and engage in useful behaviors in addition to employment requirements. It can be realized from the above table that convergent validity was measured using AVE, as all the constructs report the AVE values above the threshold of 0.50, which ranges from 0.542 to 0.613. The measurement model depicts high reliability and adequate convergent validity, which further makes it suitable for structural model analysis.

Table 3. Reliability analysis

The reliability of all the items was assessed. Outer loadings (Table 4) indicate the degree to which each item contributes to its overall construct. The acceptable threshold for outer loading is above 0.5, which ensures that each item significantly impacts its respective construct. Outer loadings above 0.70 are considered. It can be observed that for AC, all the items (A1-A8) exhibit loadings that range between 0.768 and 0.846, confirming that each item contributes to the construct. Similarly, NC indicators (NC1-NC8) exhibit loadings that range between 0.742 and 0.813, all exceeding the threshold, supporting the reliability of the indicators. The construct CC also shows satisfactory loadings, as the values are above the threshold and range from 0.753 to 0.813, supporting the reliability of the indicator. All indicators of OCB across its 5 dimensions, namely (A, CV, C, S, CN). These values show that each items clearly reflect the underlying construct significantly, though the nature of OCB is multidimensional, the high loadings indicate that the scale is robust. Lastly, it can be observed that sustainability indicators (ER1- TQC3) clearly show that the outer loading of each item ranges between 0.804 to 0.847, demonstrating that all the items measure the construct.

Table 4. Outer-loadings

Discriminant validity among the constructs was evaluated (Table 5). It can be observed from the table that all constructs satisfy this requirement. Specifically, the square root of AVE for AC (0.783) is greater than its correlation with NC (0.612), CC (0.587), OCB (0.476), and SO (0.402). Similarly, NC also shows adequate discriminant validity, with its square root of AVE (0.750), which exceeds its correlations with CC (0.629), OCB (0.418), and SO (0.384). For CC, the square root of AVE (0.773) is higher than its correlation with OCB (0.356) and SO (0.365), which confirms its distinctiveness. OCB also meets the criterion as its square root of AVE (0.736) is greater than its correlation with SO (0.647) and all other constructs. Finally, SO shows a square root of AVE of 0.782, which also exceeds its correlation with AC (0.402), NC (0.384), CC (0.365) and OCB (0.647). Hence, the findings of the test confirm that each construct is unique and also captures the unique aspects of the model.

Table 5. Fornell-Larcker criterion

Variance Inflation Factor was utilized (Table 6) to check if there is no multicollinearity among the indicators. As per the established guidelines, the VIF values should be below 3.3, which indicates that there is an absence of multicollinearity and hence further confirms that the indicators are not excessively correlated. It can be observed that the VIF values for AC range from 1.978 to 2.451, which means low to moderate correlation among indicators without any risk of collinearity. Similarly, NC exhibits VIF values between 1.842 and 2.273 which are well within the acceptable limits. The indicators of CC show the VIF values ranging from 1.964 to 2.361, which confirms that this construct has no concern of multicollinearity. For OCB, which consists of five dimensions, the VIF values range from 1.983 to 2.586 although the number of indicators is large, yet the indicators are distinct and do not suffer from redundancy. Multicollinearity is also missing in SO as the VIF values range between 2.104 and 2.481. Hence, the indicators are sufficiently independent and contribute uniquely to their respective constructs. These findings further support the suitability and robustness of the model for further structural analysis.

Table 6. Variance Inflation Factor (VIF)

Hypotheses were assessed based on standardised path coefficients (β) and p- values, a conventional threshold of p < 0.05 for supporting statistically (Table 7). 36 hypotheses were tested, and 28 were supported (Figure 1), which simply means that 77.8% of the hypotheses were supported. Demographic predictors of OCB and commitment dimensions were assessed, and it was revealed that job profile, marital status, income, age, gender, education, and length of service significantly predict the key dimensions of OCB and all three dimensions of OC. It is suggested that employee background characteristics are significantly associated with attitudinal outcomes in the model. It can also be observed that Age → OCB was not supported, indicating that the difference in age straightforwardly affects discretionary citizenship behaviour, whereas age demonstrated a positive association with commitment, which simply implies that older employees may show strong attachment with the organisation and do not manifest higher OCB. The same pattern was observed for Education → OCB wasn’t supported. The findings of the study imply that education may shape skills and knowledge, but doesn’t predict OCB. Most demographic paths in this section supported a conventional threshold, which indicates that demographic segmentation is very informative for enlightening the variance in the attitudinal model outcomes. It was also revealed that the area of belongingness shapes both the employees' discretionary and attitudinal behaviours. It can also be revealed that OCB has a positive and significant influence on SO (β = 0.647, p = 0.000). The magnitude of the path coefficient (0.647) also suggests that there is a strong exchange between the discretionary behaviour of the employees that enhances the sustainability-related outcomes, that is, teaching quality, organisational resilience and employee stability.

Figure 1. Effect testing

Table 7. Direct effects

The current study provides an extensive examination of the direct effects of the demographic and occupational characteristics on OC and OCB and subsequently on the SO within the HEIs of North India. The findings of the study reveal that OC plays a decisive and central role in predicting OCB. All three dimensions of OC AC (β = 0.318, p < 0.001), NC (β = 0.247, p < 0.001), and CC (β = 0.221, p < 0.001) exhibit a positive and significant relationship with OCB. Among these, it can be observed that AC emerges as the strongest predictor, of citizenship behaviour among the faculty members. It can also be stated that there is a substantial and highly significant influence on SO (β = 0.647, p < 0.001), which implies the strategic importance in fostering teaching quality, enhancing HEIs governance, improving job stability, and sustainability. These findings also highlight the Behaviour of the faculty, which is beyond the job requirements and contributes to meaningful organisational resilience and performance in academic settings. A nuanced picture is presented with respect to the demographic variables, such as length of service, marital status, area, and job profile, which show positive and significant effects on OCB, suggesting that professional experience, personal stability, and contextual factors influence OCB. Whereas education, gender, age, and salary have no significant effect on OCB may be less dependent on these specific demographic characteristics and influenced by the organisational and psychological factors. However, demographic factors, including gender, marital status, education, age, length of service, area, and income, demonstrate a positive and significant relationship with all three dimensions of OC. This simply means that demographic factors may not influence OCB directly, but they indirectly contribute to strengthening an employee's commitment. However, the job profile has a direct effect on OCB. Overall, the findings validate the mediating role of OC in linking demographic and job-related characteristics to OCB and reinforce the importance of commitment in fostering OCB and SO. In conclusion, the results of the study emphasised that institutional strategies strengthen commitment that can significantly improve OCB and, in turn, improve SO, which ensures long-term success of the HEI.