Waste Management as a Measure to Achieve Sustainable Development in Kosovo

2.1 Social influences

Social and Cultural influences on Tourism need to be analyzed with intense care, as they can pose either a positive or negative impact on the presiding community. The influx of tourists brings different benefits to the community and an influence of family life. Furthermore, individuals and the community can attempt to satisfy the needs of customers or even attempt to mimic tourist behavior. Interactions between locals and tourists may result in the creation of new opportunities or destinations of individuality. Visitor interest and enjoyment of the community can also cause the locals to be more grateful of local resources. Tourist Activities have a tendency to make the tourists live in a more interesting and emotional place [1].

2.2 Environmental impact of tourism

The development of tourism must be sustainable, and effective energy-wise. It must give priority to energy efficient transport and tourism infrastructure, in lowering waste and pollution levels, and promote biodiversity in the advancement of technology and to reduce greenhouse gases. Naturally Formed Landscapes, the ecosystem of wild animals that attract tourists, Natural Resources consumed by tourists and those that serve as tourist attractions, The Microenvironment of farms that develop agrotourism, Manmade Ecosystems that serve as significant tourist attractions, or the foundation of a tour product and tourism infrastructure. On the impact of tourism on the environment, Middleton & Hawkins accentuate that tourism is the only industry with natural landscapes with less influence than other similar industries such as Agriculture, Mining, Forestry, Hunting, etc. [2].

2.3 Economic impact of tourism

Over time, the economic weight of tourism began to be realized by more and more countries. The tourism industry is turning into a tool to promote economic welfare. Many nations and tour destinations have seen success by rapidly increasing the number of visitors. The positive impact of the development of tourism is apparent when considering a considerable increase in jobs and income via the exchange of foreign currency. According to Tosun & Jenkins, marketing is also a key tool to be used in increasing positive economic effects. Today, marketing techniques remain dominant in tourism planning. In time, the marketing techniques used become more and more complicated, as they include consideration into understanding tourist behavior, and segmenting and choosing consumer bases [3].

Tourism planning focuses on the manner with which to maximize positive effects and minimize or at least marginally decrease the negative impacts. Furthermore, Butler suggests an import concept in the stimulation of the considerations of tourist destinations, so both marketers and planner cooperate in planning and marketing. In the Marketing aspect, attention is focused to overcoming growth obstacles. Meanwhile the planning aspect is focused not only in directing how to prolong the growth phase, but also in the evaluation of tourism resources in order to identify viable norms and acceptable forms of changing the ecosystem, as well as the perception of the locals on the development of tourism [4].

Tourism is a multidimensional activity of today's contemporary society. Tourism has now been affirmed as a typical phenomenon of contemporary civilization, which is predicted to grow and become more massive in the future. Tourism was not born with industrial civilization but has progressed alongside the development of humanity and civilization. This sector after the agriculture and energy sector should be accepted as one of the sectors that should be given priority in the future development of Kosovo's economy [5].

In recent years, the trend is the visit of visitors to tourist villages. An increase in the interest of people from urban settlements to stay and spend time in rural settlements is investigated, i.e., to escape from the noisy and boring daily life in large urban centers. Rural tourism has a specific clientele of its own. These are people who are passionate about natural beauty, people who are fans of pets, fans of horseback riding, fans of agricultural work, such as fruit picking, people who prefer fresh agricultural products (cheese, wine, fruit) as indigenous specialties. A special clientele of rural tourism is the category of hunting tourists, this clientele is passionate about wildlife hunting. This activity is related to the hunting season so these are tourists with seasonal activity. Other users of rural tourism are also winter sports tourists. Kosovo has great potentials for the development of rural tourism, therefore these potentials should be used for the development of tourism in general and rural tourism in particular [6].

It is related to the development of tourism based on large areas of land types, water resources, favorable climatic conditions, which go in favor of cultivating crops and keeping animals, were with their products can serve tourists in different parts of Kosovo, with agricultural and livestock products, which would meet the tourist consumption [7].

In order to protect human health and the environment from pollution and destruction, waste should be properly handled or managed. The term waste management refers to the process of collecting, transporting, processing, recycling or depositing and monitoring waste materials. In order to protect people and the environment, waste management must meet sustainability criteria. Sustainable waste management encompasses management of all processes and resources for proper handling of waste materials and dumping facilities to compliance with health codes and environmental regulations.

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Figure 1. Waste hierarchy management

The goals of sustainable waste management are: protection of human health, protection of natural ecosystems and the environment, conservation of valuable natural resources, prevention of additional creation of greenhouse gases.

In order to achieve these goals, it is necessary to take appropriate measures called the waste hierarchy, which are presented in the literature through the image of an inverted pyramid. This hierarchy represents a systematic sequence of measures that need to be taken in order for sustainable waste management to exist and is guided by what is best for the environment. At the same time, the most important and most desirable measures are located at the top of the pyramid, that is, the hierarchy, and the least desirable at the bottom of the pyramid, that is, hierarchy (Figure 1).

Kosovo has a total area of 10,905.25 km², and the number of inhabitants is 1,907.620, so it is one of the most densely populated countries. The average population density in Kosovo is 175.22 inhabitants/km². Kosovo is organized into 38 municipalities with 1,469 settlements (according to the data of the Agency of Statistics of Kosovo).

Almost half of the population in Kosovo lives in rural areas, but the trend of people leaving these areas and migrating to cities is increasing. Cities in Kosovo cover only 2% of the total land area in Kosovo, and generate as much as 70% of waste, and emit 70% of the gases that create the greenhouse effect (greenhouse gases) [14].

As a result of increased migration, urbanization and economic development, there is an increase in waste. The amount of waste in Kosovo is constantly increasing from year to year. For example, in 2014, the amount of municipal waste in Kosovo was 247,000 tons, the annual amount of waste generated per person was 140 kg, while the daily amount of waste per person was 0.4 kg. In just 7 years, the amount of generated waste in Kosovo has increased by as much as 96.36%. Thus, in 2021, the amount of municipal waste generated in Kosovo is 485,000 tons, the amount of waste generated per person per year is 273 kg, while the amount of waste generated per person per day is 0.7 kg (Table 1).

Table 1. Municipal waste in Kosovo, 2014 – 2021

Source: ASK – Kosovo, 2023

Apart from municipal waste, industrial waste in Kosovo is constantly increasing. Thus, in 2021, the total quantity of industrial waste generated in Kosovo is 2,214,928 tons, which compared to 2020, when 2,137,015 tons of industrial waste was generated, an increase of 3.6% (Table 2).

Table 2. Total quantity of industrial waste generated in Kosovo 2016 – 2021

There are no specific data for generating the hazardous waste in Kosovo, but since most industrial waste is hazardous, then the data related to industrial waste are somewhat relevant for this indicator as well.

The waste management system in Kosovo does not yet provide complete data on waste generation, treatment and disposal. About 90-95% of the urban population of Kosovo use the services of the waste collection system, but these services have a low level of standard due to the lack of adequate equipment and facilities.

Municipal waste collection in Kosovo is carried out through seven regional public enterprises organized in Kosovo municipalities through operational units. In addition to them, there are a large number of private companies operating throughout Kosovo. As of 2018, there are a total of 76 licensed enterprises engaged in the collection, transportation, and treatment of various types of waste.

If we analyze the treatment of waste in Kosovo, it can be noted that the largest amount of waste is deposited in landfills, although it is the most undesirable and worst variant that is at the bottom of the hierarchy of waste management. There are 7 licensed sanitary landfills for waste in Kosovo: in Pristina, Ferizaj, Gjilan, Mitrovica, Peja, Prizren and Podujevo (Table 3). They receive less than 40% of municipal waste in Kosovo. Of these seven sanitary landfills, almost all have reached their maximum capacity, so they have to be closed urgently. They are also not completely operating according to the conditions defined in the EU [15]. Their infrastructure is in a very bad state and there are no investments to improve their work and modernize them. The fee they charge only covers the basic costs of managing the landfills without the possibility of modernizing and upgrading them.

Most of the municipal waste is disposed of in non - sanitary landfills that are not well designed, managed and do not work properly. In these landfills, the incoming waste is not inspected and measured, it is not pre-treated, and no record is kept of the deposits. Such unsanitary landfills are the landfill in Istog, the landfill in Zvečan, the landfill in Zubin Potok and the landfill in Leposavic.

The quantity of waste disposed in licensed landfills in Kosovo in 2021 is 483,777 tons, which is an increase of 8.6% compared to the data from 2020 (Table 3). Compared by region, the largest amount of disposed waste is in the sanitary landfill in the region of Prishtina (Miraş, 167,371 tons, that is 35% of the total waste disposed in the official landfills). The quantity of waste disposed in licensed sanitary landfills in 2020 was 445,449 tons. Compared to 2019 data, there is a slight decrease by (-0.02%).

Municipal waste is collected by public and private operators and then deposited in sanitary or unsanitary landfills. But since more than 50% of the population in Kosovo lives in rural areas, only about 40% of the waste generated in rural areas is accumulated and properly disposed of in landfills.

Table 3. Municipal waste disposed in licensed sanitary landfills for 2020 and 2021

Source: Waste Treatment Surveys 2021 and 2022, Kosovo Agency of Statistics, Pristina, 2022

Table 4. Waste treatment in Kosovo, in tons, 2019 - 2021

Source: Kosovo Agency of Statistics, 2023

From the Table 4, it can be seen that over the years, the quantity of waste deposited in landfills in Kosovo has been increasing, instead of decreasing. Thus, the quantity of waste deposited in landfills in Kosovo in 2020 is 445,449 tons, and in 2021, 483,777.1 tons.

Recycled waste comes in second place in terms of quantity, followed by sterilized waste. The total amount of recycled waste in 2021 is 21 307 tons, the amount of sterilized waste 1 (medical waste) is 959.5 tons, and the total amount of deposited waste is 483,777.1 tons. Therefore, the total amount of treated and deposited waste in 2021 is 506,043.6 tons. Compared to the data from 2020, an increase in treated waste in 2021 by 12.73% was observed. The amount of treated waste, according to the type of waste and the type of treatment, expressed in percentage for 2021, is as follows: Plastic waste 31%, Metal waste 14%, Medical-hospital waste 4% Paper and cardboard waste 51%. In 2020, the quantity of waste treated, by type of waste and type of treatment, expressed as a percentage was as follows: metals (27%), plastic waste (47%), hospital waste (20%), paper waste and cardboard (6%).

In Kosovo, there is no organized system for waste recycling, although in some municipalities there are initiatives for waste separation at the source. There are several licensed companies engaged in the business of waste treatment and recycling.

Regarding the composition of recycled waste, 69% of them are waste from ferrous metals and other metals, 13% from plastic waste and 14% from paper and cardboard waste. In 2019, several glass waste recycling initiatives were launched. The amount of recycled waste represents only about 5% of the total amount of waste generated at the national level. A significant amount of recyclable waste (waste that can undergo a recycling process) is also exported abroad.

When analyzing industrial waste, it is noted that disposal is again the most common option, with the amount of industrial waste deposited being substantial. In 2017, the deposited industrial waste totaled 1,674,327 tons; in 2018, it was 1,567,872 tons; in 2019, the figure stood at 1,519,488 tons; in 2020, it significantly increased to 1,918,457 tons; and in 2021, it decreased to 1,220,962 tons. The second most common waste treatment method is exporting to other locations (abroad), which is waste sent elsewhere. The third is recycling, and the fourth is incineration of waste (as shown in Table 5).

Table 5. Total quantity of industrial waste generated and processed, in 000 tons, 2016 – 2021

Source: Kosovo Agency of Statistics, 2023

In 2021, the quantity of waste exported was 830,917 tons, the amount landfilled was 1,220,962 tons, the recycled waste totaled 159,602 tons, the incinerated waste was 1,446 tons, and the total waste processed amounted to 2,212,927 tons [8].

In Kosovo, there are no special landfills for the disposal of hazardous waste such as: construction and demolition waste, medical waste, remains and bodies of animals, bulky waste, etc. These types of waste end up in municipal waste landfills or are simply thrown away where possible, i.e., they end up in the so-called illegal (wild) dumps. Illegal disposal of waste is a common problem in Kosovo and affects all municipalities. In 2018, 2246 illegal landfills were registered in Kosovo. In 2019, their number decreased to 1489, in 2020 to 1189, and in 2021 the number of illegal landfills is 763 (Table 6).

Table 6. The number of illegal landfills over the year by region

Source: AMMK, 2023

Although the number of illegal landfills in Kosovo is decreasing year by year, this number is still huge and poses a danger to both human health and the environment.

The largest number of illegal landfills in 2021 was recorded in the region of Prizren (187), followed by the region of Pristina (150), the region of Mitrovica (118), the region of Gjilan (111), the region of Ferizaj (99), the region of Peja (68), while the lowest number of illegal landfills was registered in the region of Djakovo (30).

In the illegal landfills in Kosovo, landfills of different sizes and different composition are registered. Thus, according to the size, the most represented are the small landfills (270), and when it comes to the composition of the illegal landfills, “other” landfills dominate with a share of 40% of the total number of illegal landfills in Kosovo (Table 7).

Currently, hazardous waste in Kosovo is stored in closed rooms. It is found in various types and packaging, and it is about organic solvents, paints, various plasters, glues, metal or decorative solvents, chemical solvents (with acidic or alkaline properties), but also other unknown substances. Industrially developed zones in Kosovo have a high concentration of hazardous materials. A large concentration of these dangerous substances is present in Mitrovica (Trepča), Kisnica (Trepča) and KEK-Obilić, not neglecting other places such as Ferronickel company, IBG-batteries in Gnjilane, auto parts factory in Pec, IMK-Uroševac, Pharmakos - Prizren, etc. There is still no repository or exclusive facility for the processing or storage of hazardous waste in compliance with EU standards in Kosovo [7].

Medical waste in Kosovo is processed in eight facilities established within hospital centers in major cities across Kosovo. Of these eight facilities, seven were built with funding from the Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning in Kosovo, and the facility located within the hospital in Vuchitrn was funded by the Red Crescent of the United Arab Emirates. From the data collected by the Ministry of Health, it can be seen that there is a constant increase in the treatment of this waste from year to year, however, all health institutions and activities do not send waste for processing to these plants, otherwise there would be a significant increase in the amount of this waste. The plant located in Pristina processes the largest amount of medical waste, followed by the plant in Prizren, while the smallest amount of medical waste is processed at the plant in Vucitrn.

There are not enough waste inspections in Kosovo. The reason for that lies in insufficient financial resources, as well as in the lack of specialized personnel.

Table 7. Illegal landfills according to composition, 2021

In Kosovo, there is no system for the separation of special types of waste, an indicator that is of great importance for the preservation of the environment and public health. Informal waste collectors play a major role in collecting recyclable waste throughout Kosovo. They collect a certain type of waste: metal, plastic, paper, waste electrical and electronic equipment, etc. and mostly sell them to licensed export companies. There are no data on the quantities of waste collected in this way.

The municipalities have also not yet started taking initiatives to start implementing the measure - separation of waste at the source, which is the key to the beginning of integrated waste management and developing a sustainable waste recycling system.

In Kosovo, the Law on waste aims to transpose the EU waste legislation, providing a comprehensive framework for the development of waste management. The new integrated waste management strategy for 2021-2030 and the new action plan for integrated waste management for 2020-2023 were adopted in May 2021. The targets set in EU directives are widely transposed into national law, but the implementation is lacking. The Law on waste still has to be further aligned with the Waste Framework Directive. Extended producer responsibility (EPR) and the ‘polluter pays’ principle need to be included. As waste can still be disposed of in landfills not compliant with the EU Landfill Directive at low cost, it is hard for other waste management options to compete [15].