Traditional Knowledge of Marine Resources and Their Relations to the Coastal Community’s Economic Well-Being in Peninsular Malaysia

Malaysia is one of the world's megadiverse countries, and it is ranked 12th in the world in terms of country biodiversity [13]. While Malaysia is regarded as one of the most prosperous countries in Southeast Asia for its abundance of marine resources, this treasure also serves as a significant source of income for coastal communities and seafood traders. The biodiversity of Malaysia has made the country as a premier ecotourism destination through the integration of social sustainability growth of the local population with the economic outcomes [6]. Importantly, the marine resources provide numerous benefits to coastal communities, including seafood resources, ecotourism industry, coastal protection, and income sources for coastal communities, all of which contribute to their economic well-being.

Economic opportunities arise from traditional knowledge and cultural development when applied in the context of international trade, and they have a particular cultural and social significance relevant to coastal communities. It is possible to define TK as the collective and passed down information, experience, and wisdom of human societies that have a long-term attachment to a particular location or situation [14]. TK, which is also known as indigenous knowledge, is defined as a "systematic way of thinking applied to phenomena through, physical, cultural, and spiritual systems" that have been passed down through generations [15]. Local communities' traditional knowledge refers to the information and practices that have evolved over time and are traditionally passed down to younger generations in real-world working and living conditions.

The potential of coastal areas, which are mostly inhabited by fishing communities, has not been fully explored [16]. This could be due to the reason that the marine resources, such as fish, seaweed, and sea cucumbers, captured are mostly consumed by the communities themselves. Under the notion of a blue economy, the marine resources must be preserved because of their economic benefits to the local community [17]. The blue economy also propagates for the protection of TK for the community’s survival [18]. Marine resources provide food and improve the living standards of coastal communities through TK as well as traditional medical processing methods create employment opportunities [3].

Nevertheless, coastal areas, particularly in developing countries, have been unscrupulously exploited since they are viewed as safety nets for food production and to provide for livelihood and economic well-being [19]. “Economic well-being” is defined by the Council on Social Work Education as having financial security in the present and the future [20]. Existing financial security refers to an individual’s, families, or community’s ability to meet their basic needs on a consistent basis (including food, housing, healthcare, transportation, and education). Additionally, it encompasses the capacity to make economic decisions and to experience a sense of security, satisfaction, and personal fulfillment in connection with employment pursuits. This could also be indirectly due to the recent global movement towards the development of a blue economy strategy, which stresses coastal resources to address the issue of insufficient resources [21].

The commercial value of TK can be realised through its associated use in the development of herbal products and applications in healthcare, nutraceutical, cosmeceutical, and pharmaceutical product development [22]. In addition to influencing a community's diet and food preferences, religion and TK have an impact on intra-household food distribution patterns, child feeding practices, food processing and preparation techniques, health and sanitation practices, traditional medicine, and the accessibility and utilisation of biomedical and public health services [23]. Moreover, the incorporation of TK into the global stream is becoming increasingly popular because it has the potential to mitigate climate change through the concept of a blue economy and is regarded as a significant contributor to the societal well-being as a whole [24].

In line with technological advancement, the role of TK in improving living standards has gained global attention as it has been repeatedly proven that these are often the most optimal for societies [24]. For instance, traditional practices in developed rural areas using locally available ingredients have over time offered improved survival along with good climate control [24, 25]. Recently, many authorities have realized the interrelation between the notion of sustainability and traditional tradition of information, practices, and beliefs about the human-environment interaction, and how the connection is crucial for human well-being and economic growth [26].

The wealth of traditional marine knowledge developed by these communities has been passed down through generations, and both the communities and the surrounding marine environment have thrived sustainably, thereby preserving the marine ecosystem. People in remote villages continue to rely on their TK to support their families and maintain their livelihoods [27].

As presented in the profile of the respondents (Table 1), 117 respondents were chosen from the coastal areas throughout the 11 states in Peninsular Malaysia. The highest number of respondents are from Kedah, with a total of 13 respondents. This is followed Terengganu, Melaka, Johor, and Selangor with 12 respondents each. The group with the lowest number are Kelantan and Negeri Sembilan. The findings indicated that most respondents were male, which is 113 respondents, and 4 were female. This can be explained by the fact that coastal communities that work as fishermen and engage in marine activities such as catching marine resources and using traditional equipment are dominated by males. The Food and Agriculture of the United Nations also stated that more than 80 percent of the male population is involved in the fishing sector and marine activities in the world [29]. It is consistent with the high numbers of male respondents compared to females in this study.

The study is also dominated by 92 respondents (78.6%), who are 50 years and above. This is pertinent because the older generation is deemed to have more TK inherited from their forefathers and use such knowledge for their survival. Out of the 17 respondents, 115 (98.3%) were married. 58 respondents (49.6%) earned between RM1001.00-RM2000.00 for their monthly income. Their livelihood is derived from the capture and sale of seafood, which is then sold directly to the consumers, or to the middlemen.

Most of the 114 respondents are Malay, while 3 respondents are Chinese, which represents the fact that rural and coastal areas are mostly populated by Malays, who traditionally engage in marine and fishing activities. A total of 103 respondents (88%) had only completed primary and secondary education. This could be because the former generations had low awareness of tertiary education with no financial means to send their children to study.

Table 1. Profile of the respondents (n=117)

Based on occupation, most respondents (85.5 percent) work as fishermen and earn a living through marine activities and resources. It is in line with the objective and context of the study. The study population and unit of analysis are coastal communities, and fishermen are the individuals most involved with marine activities and resources. Furthermore, this study believes that fishermen are the most suitable group to obtain information about TK based on marine resources.

4.1 Potentials of traditional knowledge based on marine resources for the economic well-being of coastal communities

In order to study the potential of TK based on marine resources for the economic well-being of coastal communities in Peninsular Malaysia, the respondents were asked about their awareness of the associated use of TK on marine resources, and their involvement and dependence in the practice. Their perception of TK on marine resources for economic well-being, and knowledge of the types of marine resources caught, were also examined to determine the potential.

Table 2. Traditional medicine based on marine resources for economic well-being (n=117)

Table 2 illustrates the findings on traditional medicine based on marine resources. A total of 94 (80.4%) respondents agreed that traditional medicine derived from marine resources could be commercialised and distributed to wholesalers as well as the local community, who are using them regularly. Indirectly, this has a positive effect on the rate of economic growth through increased sales. Furthermore, 42 respondents (35.9%) said traditional medicine could be used as a health product or as a food supplement. For instance, sea cucumber is used as an ointment to treat wounds and aesthetically as a facial cleanser.

Several respondents developed products from marine resources and partnered with pharmacies and hospitals to sell them on the market and use them to treat patients, contributing to their income generation. This is particularly true when the respondents relate their income to the demand and supply in the Malaysian market. The feedback shows that traditional medicine from marine resources can be an economic catalyst for coastal communities and the country. According to some respondents:

“If traditional medicine is transformed into a product, it can be commercialised and profitably distributed. Until now, many people continue to use traditional medicine for health purposes, which can be sold to both the local community and wholesalers. Additionally, the health product can be used as a nutrient-dense food supplement, such as fish oil." [(R22, R24, R25 - Traditional Medicine Practitioner), (R28, R30, R43 - Fishermen), (R55, R95 - Fishmonger)].

“TK found in coastal communities should be passed down to future generations to ensure the continuation of this tradition. Traditional medicine has the potential to contribute to economic well-being, particularly in coastal communities that rely heavily on marine resources for their livelihood.” [(R88, R90, R107, R112 - Fishermen), (R93 - Fishmonger)].

“The sale of traditional medicines as health products or supplements can enhance coastal communities and improve their economic well-being. For instance, sea cucumbers can be consumed for internal health purposes, not only for treating wounds. Therefore, I believe that traditional medicine based on marine resources is gaining demand both domestically and internationally.” [(R22, R24, R25 - Traditional Medicine Practitioner), (R104, R105 - Fishermen)].

Following that, some respondents agreed that traditional medicine based on marine resources can create employment opportunities when the demand is high. Traditional medicine entrepreneurs would require more skilled and unskilled workers to process raw materials, as well as at the management level. For example, in Langkawi, sea cucumber factories have been hiring many workers from the local community to cater to both the domestic and export market. Thus, it can be inferred that the associated use of TK on marine resources can benefit the local community and the economy when the traditional medicine industry prospers and provide economic opportunity to the local communities.

Another economic benefit of marine-based traditional medicine is that it requires low capital while on the other end, it brings the potential for high profits. As quoted from the respondents:

“I have a factory to process raw materials such as sea cucumber into products. So, the factory needs workers for that part, and I will be hiring some workers. This traditional medicine industry can be further developed because there are pharmacies and medical doctors who are interested in taking traditional medicine based on marine resources used on patients” (R22, R24, R25 - Traditional Medicine Practitioner).

“Traditional medicine based on marine resources does not require high capital like modern medicine. As a result, it is easier for the local community to process raw materials into products. Foreigners or tourists are also interested in local products because for them such products are difficult to find.” [(R22, R24, R25 - Traditional Medicine Practitioner), (R23, R32 - Fishermen), (R45 - Fishmonger)].

Table 3. Perception towards traditional knowledge on marine resources for economic well-being (n=117)

As shown in Table 3, 59 respondents (50.4%) believe that TK contributes to economic growth through the utilisation of marine resources. They contend that the associated use of TK on marine resources has the potential to generate income through the sale of traditional medicines and raw materials, as well as serve as a major source of food through the capture of marine resources. For instance, marine resources captured using TK taught by their forefathers, in both fishing methods and post-harvest processes, were turned into medicine or consumed.

Likewise, marine resources are essential to food security, nutrition, and community livelihood in developing coastal countries particularly. As stated by the respondents:

“The TK gained from previous generations has many benefits, among which we are taught about the methods of capturing marine resources, the preparation of traditional medicine, and which sources have the most nutrients to eat. All this acquired knowledge can indirectly generate income and improve the global economy.” [(R8, R11, R18, R23, R29 – Fishermen), (R45, R55 - Fishmonger)].

“I also make traditional medicine on a small scale, such as crab, which can be used to treat malaria and is also eaten as soup. There is a community here that is interested in purchasing from me, which has the potential to increase the income of my entire family. This knowledge was passed down to me by my parents, who have been teaching me since I was a child, as well as the appropriate equipment to use.” [(R26, R31, R41, R61 - Fishermen), (R93 - Fishmonger)].

Furthermore, 51 respondents (43.6%) believe that marine resources contain various multiple health benefits than can be turned into health products, such as seaweed that have countless nutrients and can also be used in beauty products, which are in high demand Additionally, they believe that marine-based product accruing from TK is highly sought after, which has potentials as a traditional industry with job opportunities for the younger generation. According to some respondents:

“TK based on marine resources can be trusted from its effectiveness. Not only in terms of health but can be used as a source of income in our lives. I still practice it, and its effectiveness has been proven to be effective and can improve my family's economy” (R51, R54, R107, R113 - Fishermen).

“We believe that these marine resources have the potential to be a catalyst for our economy, particularly in terms of job creation. Many coastal communities have lower levels of education and rely heavily on marine resources as a source of income and primary occupation. Additionally, we can establish traditional industries to generate employment opportunities.” [(R22, R24, R25 - Traditional Medicine Practitioner), (R71, R77 - Fishermen), (R93 - Fishmonger)].

Nevertheless, a trivial number of respondents do not believe in TK due to the difficulty of obtaining traditional medicines. They are also sceptical of the skills of the coastal communities in processing such raw materials. As several respondents mentioned:

“Coastal communities do not have the right skills to process the raw materials. The TK is used in the village area only and is acceptable. Not suitable in urban areas, the source is difficult to obtain nowadays.” [(R62 - LKIM Officer), (R106 - Fishermen)].

“Nowadays, traditional medicine is scarce, as only a few people practice it. Raw resources such as sea cucumber and seahorse are also declining and difficult to process into medicine. Manual processing also takes longer to complete. Also, the local community does not get proper education in the processing skill of this traditional medicine” [(R27, R69 - LKIM Officer), (R66, R75 - Fishermen)].

Most coastal communities survive solely on marine resources. They obtain marine resources both as a source of food and income. Referring to Table 4, there are three types of marine resources that are most widely consumed and benefited by the respondents. 92 respondents (78.6%) catch fish as their primary source of revenue. Most respondents catch fish using fish nets and sold them to fishmongers and middlemen on the coast. Among the most common fish are mackerel and sardines. Apart from that, they also process seafood products such as fish crackers (keropok lekor and keropok keeping), which are then sold to supplement their income.

Table 4. Types of marine resources used to generate income (n=117)

A total of 71 respondents (60.7%) stated that catching crabs are also another source of income. Crabs, boiled or in soup, have numerous benefits including treating dengue fever, high blood pressure, malaria, and chikungunya. Consequently, people are willing to pay fishermen and fishmongers relatively high prices to acquire them. Another 63 respondents (53.9%) catch squid for sale. Popular seafood, squid also contains nutrients that can be used to treat various health issues, including facial skin beauty, asthma, coughing, and body swelling. As stated by the respondents:

“Usually, fish is the marine resource that most fishermen here get, and the local community will buy it raw and fresh. The bestselling fish are mackerel and selayang fish. There is also a community here asking me to get it and paying me to get the source” (R17, R31, R76 - Fishermen).

“Fish is the main source for my family because it is used as a source of food and income. For example, raw fish is processed and made into products such as “keropok lekor” and “keropok keping” and marketed to the community.” [(R9, R93 - Fishmonger), (R102 - Fishermen)].

“Apart from fish, crabs and squid are also in high demand in this community because they contain nutrients that are beneficial to health and require little preparation to cook. Additionally, these resources are readily available in coastal areas and can be sold for a higher price than fish.” (R6, R16, R20, R21, R29, R61 - Fishermen).

Nevertheless, there are also marine resources that are less lucrative such as horseshoe crabs and seaweed. Since this seafood is less abundant and low in demand, they are mostly consumed by the fishermen.

The findings of this study revealed that coastal communities in Peninsular Malaysia believe that the potential of TK is based on marine resources to their economic well-being. Based on the experience and knowledge passed down through generations, these coastal communities have the knowledge, experience, and beliefs necessary to apply TK related to traditional medicine. If optimised, marine resources can provide financial security to coastal communities [30]. In order to supplement household income and improve their living standards, the coastal communities in Peninsular Malaysia have turned to the TK they have inherited.

4.2 Preference for traditional medicines over modern medicines among coastal communities

After the potential of TK based on marine resources for the economic well-being of coastal communities in Peninsular Malaysia has been determined, it is also necessary to know the coastal community’s preference between traditional medicines over modern medicines, in terms of effectiveness and contribution to their economic well-being. This is pertinent because the potential can only be optimized if the coastal communities perceive TK’s capability to improve their livelihood, and whether or not they have a preference and faith in marine-based traditional medicines.

Table 5. Economic well-being improvement with traditional knowledge (n=117)

According to Table 5, a total of 74 respondents (63.2&) voted and argued that TK has the potential to strengthen the economy through the use of marine resources. This is because the methods of capturing and identifying marine resources for their medicinal properties, as well as the processing method, are all highly valuable and difficult to obtain. Most coastal communities have their own TK or practice that has been passed down from generation to generation. The fact that TK does not require as much capital as modern knowledge demonstrates that coastal communities prefer TK when it comes to expanding their income. As quoted from the respondents:

“This TK has helped me a lot to improve the economy, not only for my income but can also benefits others because they can use the marine resources as a result of catching and processing made by us. Fishermen also capture marine resources based on traditional methods that are still used today” [(R24, R25 - Traditional Medicine Practitioner), (R97, R103, R104, R107, R112 - Fishermen)].

“Because the information passed down to us has been used since time immemorial among previous generations who are capable of being a source of food as well as a source of income, I believe that TK is the best method for improving the economy. It is also unnecessary to spend a lot of money on modern medicine because TK based on marine resources has a significant positive impact on our well-being to us.” [(R72, R76, R108, R112 - Fishermen), (R93 - Fishmonger)].

On the other hand, 30 respondents (25.7%) believe that modern knowledge is more beneficial than TK in terms of economic growth, owing to the increasing sophistication of technological equipment. Additionally, this modern knowledge will save time and may allow for a reduction in the workforce. Respondents expressed the following opinions:

“Modern knowledge, in my opinion, is superior because it is consistent with the passage of time. Today's equipment is more sophisticated, which enables time savings and manpower reductions” [(R7, R10, R32 - Fishermen), (R71 - LKIM Officer)].

“As a developing country, we should make more use of modern knowledge in terms of employment, education, and health to move towards a developed country. Modern equipment can make a greater contribution in terms of revenue such as making sales online and for the purpose of promoting products.” [(R58, R68, R70 - LKIM Officer), (R78 - Fishermen)].

13 respondents (11.1%) however stated that both traditional and modern knowledge are beneficial to the economy, depending on the situation. For instance, the method of making sea cucumber oil is based on TK and is better suited to treating minor wounds without the need to visit a clinic. On the other hand, modern knowledge is also crucial because if someone has a severe health problem, they should consult a medical doctor for treatment. As stated by the respondent:

“Both traditional and modern knowledge have their own distinct advantages that can stimulate economic growth. It depends on the present situation such as TK can improve the economy in terms of traditional medicine that can treat external wounds and modern knowledge such as clinics.” (R11, R26, R60, R76, R77 - Fishermen).

It must be noted that apart from understanding the perception of the contribution of marine-based traditional knowledge to the economic well-being of the coastal communities, traditional medicine has been found as the preferred method of improving health and supplying energy in their daily lives. While some people still consider traditional medicine to be an alternative and informal treatment because it has yet to be integrated into the formal health care system, the demand for traditional medicine is increasing as the local community responds to it more enthusiastically and positively [5].

4.3 Impact of availability of marine resources on coastal communities

As previously stated, marine resources have the potential to benefit the local economies. Another important factor is to determine the availability of marine resources. This is because the fact whether the marine resources are readily available or otherwise is influencing the coastal communities to rely on them as their source of income.

Table 6. Availability of marine resources as a source of economic well-being (n=117)

As demonstrated in Table 6, a total of 113 respondents (96.6%) mentioned that the availability of marine resources is influencing the coastal communities to make them their economic resource. Readily available sources such as fish and crabs have been their source of income. Additionally, sea cucumbers can be commercialised as traditional medicine, such as a facial soap that can be sold in markets to attract foreign tourists. The availability of marine resources as health products correlates positively with consumer use. Apart from that, they stated that many in their communities had lost jobs due to the MCO and had to rely on fishing to survive. Depending on the seasons, it is difficult for them to obtain marine resources in monsoon to survive. The respondents expressed the following statement:

“The availability of marine resources is essential in improving the economy of the coastal community because it is our source of income. If there is no such source, then we also do not make a profit. When the Covid-19 pandemic occurred, we were badly affected because we could not go to sea, and resources were also dwindling.” [(R1, R4, R37, R45, R77 - Fishermen), (R14, R45, R55 - Fishmonger), (R24 - Traditional Medicine Practitioner)].

“My parents and grandmother used to rely on this marine resource as their primary source of income and employment in the past as well. They are entirely reliant on marine resources for their subsistence, and during a monsoon season, it is extremely difficult for them to obtain resources, which has an indirect impact on their economic well-being and survival.” (R2, R5, R6, R19, R61, R79 - Fishermen), (R22, R24, R25 - Traditional Medicine Practitioner)].

However, some respondents who are not dependent on fishing as their source, stated that the availability of marine resources does not influence their consumption where they can still purchase seafood from supermarkets. As stated by some respondents:

“The availability of these marine resources in the ocean does not affect me in consuming them because I am not directly involved with marine resources. In my opinion, such resources can be found in the nearest supermarkets.” (R7, R27, R69 - LKIM Officer).

Therefore, it can be surmised that the availability of marine resources is essential for coastal communities to grow economically. When a resource is abundant and in great demand, it is harvested and marketed.

The diversity of marine resources enables employment opportunities and the potential for various economic activities based on marine resources, as well as the promotion of a healthy society [16]. In Sabah, Malaysia, the Kadazan-Dusun community practices and employs TK on natural resources in their daily activities with the goal of improving their livelihood and living standards [31]. Likewise, the above findings in this study have also demonstrated that the use of TK is still relevant and valuable as a source of wealth that can be used as a platform to develop a sustainable economy among the coastal communities in Peninsular Malaysia.

This study shows a great potential of TK and can make a great contribution to economic well-being. Several practices of coastal communities have been proven to enhance and promote the utilisation of TK on marine resources at the local level and improve maintaining a healthy ecosystem. The local community's contribution to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity is also an essential component in maintaining natural resources and well-being. Their practices, skills, and techniques provide valuable information for policy formulation and economic growth. Furthermore, as a coastal community who relied heavily on marine activities, the local knowledge and creativity can be presented to the local authorities or government in order to receive due attention and necessary support to increase awareness on the importance of TK based on marine resources for economic well-being and sustainability.

As part of the cultural tradition, community involvement plays a crucial role in influencing the sustainability of nature and TK. The involvement of members in the society can increase the awareness of coastal communities on the importance of conserving TK of marine resources. This can begin with an individual who is a member within the community, which in turn inspires other members to get to know about their TK and eventually practices the knowledge in their daily life. In addition, it will indirectly educate all communities on the significance of marine resources for economic growth and their households. Coastal communities take steps to protect and preserve marine resources for the benefit of future generations. Factors such as conservation and preservation, participation in community activities, and government involvement will form in determining awareness for economic well-being, especially in coastal areas.

We would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia for funding this research under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS Ref. code: FRGS/1/2019/SS01/UMT/02/2) awarded to Hayatul Safrah Salleh. We also would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Terengganu that supporting this research and publication, and for individuals and organisations who generously shared their time, knowledge, and experience for the purposes of this project. Ameer Farhan Mohd Arzaman acknowledged the financial support from the University of Malaysia Terengganu Scholarship (BUMT). We also would like to thank the reviewers for all their constructive comments.