Promoting Urban Cohesion Through Functional Diversity in the Historic City of Kufa

The goal of this research is to operationalize urban cohesion as a measurable spatial condition through a new integrated quantitative framework utilizing GIS-based spatial metrics, configurational network analysis, and statistical validation. As part of this framework, functional diversity will be considered a key spatial driver affecting structural integration and pedestrian continuity within historical urban environments. As part of this study, the urban structure of Kufa was digitized into standardized spatial units, allowing for the conversion of functional distributions into quantifiable indicators. To assess functional diversity, an Entropy-based LUM index was created using Activity Density Mapping to capture variations in spatial grain and intensity of function. Using the results above, a space analysis was conducted to compute both spatial integration and configurational accessibility through the evaluation of how street morphology affects movement potential. A comparative morphological assessment identified discrepancies in the spatial characteristics between the historic core of Kufa and its peripheral district. Finally, statistical correlation analysis validated the relationships between functional diversity, activity concentration, and accessibility performance, redefining urban cohesion as an empirically observable spatial phenomenon. The resulting workflow establishes a transferable analytical model for evaluating functional performance and spatial resilience in historic Middle Eastern cities.

The street network was derived from the official Master Plan and GIS database provided by the Kufa Municipality Directorate. Field observations and on-site measurements verified its consistency with the existing urban structure. Duplicate segments were removed, disconnected links were corrected, and topological consistency was verified to produce a continuous network. The processed network was analyzed using the Arc Geographic Information System (ArcGIS) Network Analyst extension to derive connectivity indicators for the configurational assessment, as illustrated in the research methodology flowchart (Figure 1).

The analysis adopted a segment-based approach using discrete street segments rather than axial lines. This method evaluates connectivity and accessibility at the street-segment level and is suited to the irregular morphology of historic Kufa. Street classifications from the municipal GIS database were retained to preserve the functional hierarchy of the network. Primary, secondary, and local streets formed a unified pedestrian network without weighting factors. Accessibility was therefore evaluated from network configuration rather than roadway capacity.

1.png

Network accessibility was assessed using three thresholds centred on Kufa Mosque. The 150 m radius represents the immediate pedestrian environment around the mosque. The 500 m radius defines the corridor linking Kufa Mosque and Al-Sahla Mosque within the historic core. The 1300 m radius covers the wider urban area, connecting the historic centre with surrounding residential districts and the riverfront. These thresholds capture the hierarchical spatial structure of Kufa and support a multi-scale assessment of accessibility and urban cohesion.

4.1 Conceptualizing urban diversity

The concept of diversity has been widely used in recent years and has many definitions depending on the context. However, in the context of this study, diversity refers to the multiplicity of demographic, cultural, economic, and urban characteristics within cities. This includes differences in ethnicity, cultures, lifestyles, income levels, land uses, and economic activities. This diversity is a fundamental characteristic of modern cities and an important element in enhancing their vitality and sustainability (United Nations Human Settlements Program - UN-Habitat). Successful urban areas can be distinguished from others through the movement of residents and the use of different activities throughout the day and night. The mix of uses is key to the success of urban areas. Diversity requires a broad mix of uses, which in turn depends on adequate levels of all activities, including flexibility of movement with easy access to all uses and public spaces that allow for interaction among residents, Figure 2 summarizes these dimensions and relationships.

2.png

Public facilities and services should be located close to each other, increasing the mixing of land uses that are compatible with other uses and accessible by walking or cycling. To achieve urban character, cities must generate functional diversity, which includes a sufficient mix of land uses [11]. Jane Jacobs emphasized that the mixing of functions within neighborhoods is a prerequisite for creating vibrant and sustainable cities. Functional diversity is considered the planning tool for achieving urban diversity, ensuring higher design efficiency, sustainable economic activity, and a better quality of life for residents.

4.1.1 Dimensions of functional diversity

The many categories of different uses of land are one important aspect of functional diversity because they provide ways to measure the amount of different land-based activities available to people living in urban areas. Balanced distributions of activities across an urban area promote a sense of community and allow easy movement between areas [12]. Functional diversity is related to urban vitality since many land uses create more opportunities for public space usage, social interaction, and different types of public space users (Remesar, 2016). Diverse land uses are also essential for sustainable cities and differ from zoning laws or functionally segregated cities. Built environments designed with diversity of land use have the advantage of supporting proximity, less distance between things, increased opportunities for physical activity, and improved ability to navigate the public realm [13]. Commercial activity is a crucial element in supporting ongoing engagement, interaction, and attraction to a place.

The diversity and density of users support commercial transactions that enhance urban cohesion by fostering connection and a vibrant space. These transactions require shopping centers, telecommunications, and banking to support commercial operations [14]. Many urban planning researchers believe that mixed land uses make environments safer and more vibrant because they are occupied throughout the day with various activities. This encourages people to remain in the area, increasing their sense of security and safety. It has been observed that European cities that have adopted mixed land uses have achieved a number of advantages. For example, central business districts remain lively in the evenings and on weekends, even when offices are closed, due to the presence of residential uses alongside other uses [15]. The diversity of land uses promotes social integration and civic life. Therefore, some specialists advocate for the necessity of distributing a range of public and commercial uses in neighborhood and sector centers, and repurposing vacant buildings [16].

4.1.2 Spatial forms of functional diversity

This is a central concept in contemporary urban planning, playing a vital role in enhancing land use efficiency, supporting urban vitality, and reducing reliance on long commutes within the city. It refers to the integration of multiple urban functions within a defined spatial area, whether at the plot, building, or overall urban fabric level, contributing to functional and spatial integration among different activities. Planning literature has shown that this diversity takes various spatial forms, differing in their organization and urban and social impacts.

Land use diversity takes three spatial forms: horizontal mixing, vertical mixing, and a combination of horizontal and vertical mixing. In horizontal mixing, two or more land uses exist side-by-side, sometimes separated by pedestrian walkways or roads. This type of diversity is the most prevalent in many cities. Vertical mixing refers to the presence of two or more uses within the same building, such as commercial use on the ground floor, administrative or medical use on the second floor, and residential use on the remaining floors. This type of mixing is common in commercial areas, especially central ones, due to the need to minimize the use of expensive land. The third form of mixed use combines both horizontal and vertical layouts on the same site [14]. Figure 3 presents the analytical framework.

3.png

4.2 Urban cohesion

Urban cohesion is a state of equilibrium that achieves an integrated system, progressing from the smallest to the largest scales to develop the urban system. If any scale within this gradual structure is lost, the entire system becomes unbalanced. Its achievement is influenced by the potential for utilizing partnerships in urban life within institutions, political activities, and decision-making processes. The urban environment can be integrated through its functional and physical mix, achieving social integration instead of isolation, to reach functionally integrated urban performance and a formally integrated physical structure. Functional diversity contributes to creating vibrant cities, which positively impacts urban cohesion. Achieving cohesion among the components and elements of the urban fabric requires the functional, formal, and spatial integration of its elements. The term "urban cohesion" refers to the value derived from the network of positive interaction between people, the structures they inhabit, and the network of public spaces they use. Therefore, for an urban area to be considered cohesive, it must possess:

•Continuity: This refers to mobility and accessibility within the city, ensuring equity, prioritizing active transportation, and creating shared spaces integrated with public transport [17].

•Central Public Spaces: These are spaces that play a pivotal role due to their location, the connections they create, the functions they perform, or the socio-economic and cultural dynamics they foster. They contribute to the overall urban network structure and may offer distinct or unique functions within the neighborhoods or sectors they serve, or at the city center level [18].

•Mixed Use: This refers to a combination of urban functions (residential, utilities, commercial, service, production areas, etc.), allowing for the generation of dynamics. Social, economic, and cultural aspects, as well as public spaces, contribute to territorial unity by promoting equal access to employment [19].

•Diversity: The capacity of a region to accommodate and accommodate diverse user groups (social classes, age groups, cultures, etc.), and the diversity of uses, functions, and housing patterns, resulting in a social mix that benefits from the variety of functions and advantages of freely accessible public spaces [20].

•Identity: This represents the culture and collective or individual relationships of a place, linked to the relationships (between users or between them and the place) and the system imposed by these relationships, and thus to knowledge, signs, symbols, etc. [21].

4.3 Theoretical synthesis: Linking diversity and cohesion

This study aims to fill the gaps in the existing research on the relationship between functional diversity and urban cohesion, given the limited number of studies in this area. The research framework addresses the existing theoretical framework, which suggests that for an urban area to be cohesive, it must contain a diverse mix of urban functions. To achieve this, the study employs multiple criteria and metrics for the variables. GIS-based comparative mapping and descriptive and statistical analyses were used to test the hypothesized relationship between functional diversity and urban cohesion.

Based on the indicators derived from the theoretical section in Tables 1 and 2, the study area will be analyzed and discussed accordingly, as follows:

Table 1. Indicators of functional diversity performance and resilience

Table 2. Urban cohesion indicators

6.1 Functional diversity

It includes indicators of diversity in land uses, the number of jobs within the walking range, and the spatial concentration of activities, through which the extent of distribution and concentration of activities within the city can be known. A balanced distribution of jobs promotes social cohesion and ease of access between parts of the city. Likewise, individuals’ positive perception of the urban spaces in which they carry out their daily activities increases social interaction and strengthens urban cohesion.

6.1.1 Diversity of land uses

It is an important indicator that shows us the extent of the diversity of land uses in the study area and its impact on urban cohesion. This indicator can be measured by using the ENT, which is a measure of mixed land uses. It takes into account the percentage of a number of uses, provided that there are two or more types within the urban area. The value of this index ranges between (0) and (1). If the value is 1, this expresses the ideal value for land uses, as it indicates a large diversity and equal distribution of land uses. When the value is close to (0), this indicates the dominance of one use over another, which is undesirable in city design [22]. The diversity of land uses was quantified using the normalized Shannon entropy (the ENT). The Shannon entropy H for an area with k land‑use categories is:

$H=-\sum_{j=1}^k P^i \ln \left(P^i\right)$

where, $P^i$ is the proportion (percentage divided by 100) of land area occupied by category j. To obtain an index that ranges between 0 and 1, we normalize H by dividing by the maximum possible entropy (which occurs when all k categories are equally present). The normalized ENT is therefore:

$E N T=-\left[\sum_{j=1}^k P^i \ln \left(P^i\right)\right] / \ln (k)$

where,

k is the number of land uses.

$P^i$ is the percentage of each use within the urban area.

ENT = 0 indicates complete dominance by a single category, while ENT = 1 indicates perfectly even distribution among the k categories. In this study, k = 13 because we classified the city into 13 distinct land‑use categories (listed below). By applying the formula above to the whole city of Kufa (using the category proportions reported in Table 3), Results clear that residential and educational uses are relatively large, while economic/service categories are more limited. By applying the above equation to the entire city of Kufa, as shown in Table 3, we find that the entropy coefficient for Kufa is (0.624), a relatively good average value compared to the maximum value (1). This indicates the diversity of land uses in Kufa, meaning that the city does not suffer from the absolute dominance of a single use, but it has not yet reached optimal functional equilibrium. Despite the dominance of residential use at 51%, as shown in Table 3, followed by educational use at 21%, a high percentage compared to similar cities, Kufa has a scholarly-religious character that generates intense daily activity and fosters urban interaction. As for the use of green spaces and orchards (9.14%), this is a good percentage and represents an important environmental and cultural asset. It contributes to improving the quality of life and reflects a cultural dimension linked to the stability and historical agricultural identity of the city. The uses of (commercial + industrial + grain silo) were present at 9.2%, but not dominant. This indicates a local, service-oriented urban economy rather than a large-scale, productive one. As for the uses (artifacts + shrines and tombs), their percentage was 3.1%. They are spatially limited but have a high symbolic impact and a pivotal role in shaping the urban identity and cultural response in the city of Kufa.

Table 3. Land use ratios and entropy values in Kufa City

The Shannon ENT uses the proportional area (Pi) of each land-use category as a probability distribution. Accordingly, all categories are treated equally in the mathematical calculation regardless of their planning, cultural, or economic importance. Therefore, the index measures the evenness of land-use distribution, whereas the functional significance of specific land uses (e.g., shrines and tombs) is discussed separately in the interpretation of results.

During the analysis of the entropy coefficient for all land uses in the city of Kufa, it was found that the city enjoys a moderate functional diversity that tends towards good, supported by the weight of residential and educational uses, which contributed to achieving urban cohesion. However, the limited economic and service uses still limit the dynamism and sustainability of this cohesion.

However, when applying the equation to the city's neighborhoods separately, as shown in Figure 5, we find that the ENT values for the neighborhoods of Kufa vary (see Table 4). Higher values indicate greater functional diversity, while lower values reflect the dominance of a single use or a limited functional pattern. Analysis results indicate that the Al-Jamia’a (0.879), Al-Mutanabiy (0.8548), Al-Jidaida (0.77), and Al-Waqf (0.7067) neighborhoods demonstrate high levels of functional diversity within the city's urban fabric; in fact, all of these neighborhoods have been classified as high-level functional diversity spatial units. Al-Waqf Quarter represents a compact historic neighborhood adjacent to Kufa Mosque, characterized by fine-grained traditional street networks, small plot sizes, and high permeability. These morphological conditions contribute to higher accessibility, stronger spatial connectivity, and elevated entropy values compared to peripheral areas. This distinction allows for consistent comparative analysis between peripheral planned expansion areas and dense historic urban fabrics while maintaining methodological standardization across samples.

Table 4. Entropy coefficient for Kufa neighborhoods

Additionally, these neighborhoods have a fairly balanced mix of residential, commercial, service, and religious or administrative functions contributing to increased social interaction, accessibility, and improved urban cohesion.

5.png

In contrast to the previous sentence, the Entropy score for Al-Safir (0.1699) and Maysan (0.384), both low-entropy neighborhoods, demonstrates very limited functional diversity, primarily representing only one or a few different types of uses (most commonly residential) within the community. Maysan Quarter was classified as an independent peripheral sample due to its distinct spatial and functional characteristics, including its location at the urban edge of Kufa and its relative independence from the historic core. It exhibits a self-sufficient service structure, including local markets, health facilities, public services, and administrative functions, reflecting a more recent planned expansion with reduced dependence on the city center. When considering functional diversity distributions in each neighborhood, both Maysan and Al-Safir lack the characteristics related to urban attractiveness and therefore do not provide opportunities for multiple community members to use or interact with public space or with one another; consequently, these two neighborhoods could be classified as having very little urban cohesion. Other neighborhoods throughout the city, such as Al-Rashadiyah, Kinda, Al-Suhailiya, Maytham Al-Tammar, and Al-Mualimeen (Teachers quarter) possess medium-to-medium-high Entropy scores (0.53–0.66), suggesting that many neighborhoods in Kufa provide some level of functional diversity and opportunities for residents to utilize a range of services and activities, but do not possess the level of functional integration necessary to sustain urban planning and social interactions.

Values were classified into five operational categories. Since the Shannon ENT does not define standard threshold values, the classification adopted in this study is analytical rather than universal. The thresholds are: Very Weak (ENT < 0.40), Weak (0.40 ≤ ENT < 0.50), Medium (0.50 ≤ ENT < 0.60), Medium-High (0.60 ≤ ENT < 0.70), and High (ENT ≥ 0.70). These categories were used solely to compare the relative levels of functional diversity among neighborhoods within the study area as shown in Table 4.

6.1.2 Functional mix

It is the ratio of different land uses for a given area in hectares per unit area, and through it one can know the ratio of residential uses to non-residential uses, as well as the number of jobs within the walking area. The more cohesive the morphology of the city, the more effective it becomes in accommodating all the urban functions of its residents and the more effective it is in providing easy access to services, which makes it easier for pedestrians to reach their destinations due to the relative proximity of services:

Table 5. Level of land use mixing for the entire Kufa City

Ratio of Non-Residential to Residential Uses: Analyzing the ratio of non-residential land use area to residential land use area, the ratio is determined from (0-1), where the closer it is to (1), the higher the ratio, indicating greater diversity in functions (commercial, service, educational, administrative) and ease of movement within the neighborhood. The closer it is to (0), the lower the ratio, indicating the dominance of residential use and weakness in commercial and service activities. See Table 5 for the city of Kufa, which shows the level of mixing. We note that there are varying ratios of mixing for the neighborhoods of the city of Kufa, where values that fall within (ratio ≥ 1.0) are neighborhoods with high functional mixing, values that fall between (0.6–1.0) are neighborhoods with medium functional mixing, while values that fall within the ratio between (0.3–0.5) are neighborhoods with weak functional mixing.

6.1.3 Number of functions within walking range 400–800 m

The ability of residents to access various services within a neighborhood or district on foot, within acceptable walking distances, is determined by several studies. These studies consider the distance a person travels from their residence to commercial and service facilities, bus stops, and recreational areas and public spaces. The shorter the distance, the easier it is to access these services [23]. In the city of Kufa, an analysis of the walking buffer zone using the network buffer and GIS software (Figure 6) shows three walking buffer zones to the neighborhood center, based on time and distance. A map of Kufa reveals a concentration of short walking buffer zones around service centers (N. Centers), particularly in the southern part and the urban center. This indicates a concentration of services in the urban center, along with a dense, interconnected road network. Areas outside the service buffer zone suffer from spatial inequity in service distribution and rely heavily on car transportation to reach service centers.

Figure 6 shows an analysis of the walking range (500 m) across the road network, revealing spatial disparities in accessibility to service centers, with the highest access levels concentrated in areas with high functional mixing, while peripheral neighborhoods suffer from poor coverage within the walking distance, reflecting the need to redistribute services and improve pedestrian infrastructure to achieve spatial equity and urban sustainability.

6.png

Figure 6. Walking ranges within (400-800) meters for the urban centers of all neighbourhoods of Kufa

6.1.4 Spatial distribution

An indicator to determine how different activities are distributed throughout the city is the Kernel Density index. This index indicates the organization of activities and services throughout the city, showing the functional balance as well as providing an indication of spatial equity. The Kernel Density index has a large and direct impact on the level of mixed-use, how easily accessible services are, and how well the various functions and uses work intermixed throughout the urban area. We used GIS tools to create the functional concentration index, which quantifies the level of functional concentration using the Kernel Density index to measure the degree to which activities are concentrated within a particular urban environment. Figure 7 shows several values ranging from the lowest (0-38.1) to the highest (153-191). A higher value indicates a greater number or closer proximity of functions within that area compared to others. Conversely, a lower value indicates a less densely populated area. Higher density levels indicate areas with continuous functional activity and human movement, which promotes urban integration and increases socio-economic activity. Lower density levels on the periphery indicate weaker functional diversity and reliance on the center to meet daily needs. For the high density cultural and religious uses grounded in Kufa’s historically documented scholarly-religious significance as a center of Islamic scholarship, different sciences, Arabic grammar, and Qur’anic sciences, which historically contributed to the concentration of educational institutions. While contemporary religious scholarship is predominantly centered in Najaf and its Hawza system, Kufa’s historical educational identity remains a relevant contextual factor influencing land-use characteristics.

From Figure 7 of the city of Kufa, we observe the presence of high-density areas in the central and western parts of the city. These areas represent functional centers of attraction (commercial, service, and administrative), indicating the dominance of the city's urban center. The density of activities decreases, and residential use becomes more prevalent, as we move towards the outskirts. From the above, we conclude that the degree of functional concentration in Kufa is highest in the center, thus playing a functional role in organizing the relationship between the population and the urban space.

7.png

These functions transform into urban attraction points and transportation networks, which enhance the city's urban cohesion. As for the city's outskirts, they need a redistribution of functional activities to achieve functional and spatial integration.

6.2 Urban cohesion

Urban cohesion includes a set of important indicators that achieve connectivity in the measurements of the parts of the urban fabric, which are spatial cohesion, which expresses the urban connectivity of the kinetic network within the city, as well as the ease of access to activities and services, as well as functional cohesion. Through these indicators, a functional and physical mix can be achieved that achieves social integration instead of isolation to reach functionally integrated urban performance and a cohesive physical structure:

6.2.1 Spatial cohesion

Spatial cohesion is a fundamental concept in contemporary urban development, reflecting the organization of urban space and the interconnectedness of urban, functional, and social components in a way that achieves efficient urban performance and equitable distribution of activities and services within the city [24]. The spatial dimension is considered one of the principal elements in shaping urban space, as it is viewed not only from a physical perspective but also as a structure produced through social relations and various patterns of interaction among individuals. Space is not merely a reflection of society; rather, it acts as an active instrument in shaping and organizing social relations. The spatial dimension can be identified and assessed through the measurement of several indicators, including connectivity, accessibility, continuity, permeability, and urban expansion trends, as follows:

6.2.2 Connectivity

The connectivity of the transportation network is a key spatial indicator for measuring urban cohesion. It is expressed as the ratio of the number of intersections to the area (in hectares), reflecting the degree of interconnection of the street network and the ease of access and movement within the city. High levels of connectivity in street and road networks indicate increased spatial connectivity efficiency and improved accessibility between different urban locations. In turn, that makes commuting less physically far between where we live and where we are going for our daily activities, thereby improving our functional integration and spatial cohesion in the urban fabric [25].

8.png

Also, a high-quality level of connectivity supports active transportation patterns and provides more opportunities to socialize in public spaces. The observation of temperature bands shows that high-value connectivity (marked by warmer colors) is primarily concentrated in the historical city center. As you proceed from the city center toward its outer edges, connectivity becomes progressively lower. This means that central areas have a dense and interconnected road network characterized by short segment lengths, numerous intersections, and high traffic permeability. This facilitates access between different urban functions and supports active mobility patterns such as walking. This high level of connectivity contributes to enhanced social interaction, increased use of public spaces, and strengthened spatial cohesion, all essential elements in achieving urban cohesion.

In contrast, peripheral neighborhoods exhibit low levels of connectivity, as evidenced by the prevalence of cool colors, reflecting weak urban network integration, long section lengths, few intersections, and a layout with parallel or relatively closed streets. This pattern reduces opportunities for inter-communication and daily interaction, contributing to the emergence of urban enclaves less integrated into the overall city fabric, thus weakening urban cohesion see Figure 8.

6.2.3 Accessibility

Accessibility is a characteristic of a well-functioning city or urban area. It is a fundamental pillar that enhances urban cohesion and allows us to understand the interrelationship between transportation and land use. Streets are axes and pathways used by people to reach their destinations, which are represented by land uses and various activities, within a specific timeframe [26]. Accessibility can be measured by the time to access services. Most designers plan spaces in a way that ensures proximity to services and connects them to public streets to facilitate residents' access to various services. The shorter this distance, the more functionally integrated and interconnected the urban fabric becomes. The measurement of time to access services is based on the ability of residents of a neighborhood or area to reach various services within 10 minutes, which is equivalent to a 500-meter walk. Figure 9 illustrates this using the Network Buffer model within specific timeframes (5, 10, 15). (Minutes). Urban centers have effective access to many basic services in and around them due to the high density of roads and urban functions being located in proximity. This facilitates greater convenience for residential areas that are within proximity to the urban center, thereby promoting active mobility by walking and encouraging people to commute to work via any means (i.e., bus, bike, etc.). However, peripheral areas do not have adequate direct access to services, which leads to a decreased level of social interaction and urban coherence within the city, as illustrated in Figure 10. The concentration levels of religious and cultural symbols within the master plan boundaries of Al-Kufa exhibit distinct spatial variations.

9.png

10.png

6.2.4 Functional cohesion

Functional cohesion is defined as the degree of social, functional, and spatial interconnectedness among the components of a city.

The higher the level of functional cohesion, the greater the daily social interaction throughout the day and night, and the higher the sense of security and belonging to the place. This is a fundamental element for making cities cohesive and sustainable [27]. The degree of functional cohesion of a city can be assessed through field observations of population movement at different times of day. The presence of integrated functions within a single neighborhood reduces the spatial separation between housing, work, and services, and limits reliance on long commutes. This, in turn, promotes intensive use of public spaces and strengthens social bonds.

6.2.5 Functions within walking distance (400–800 m)

Figure 10 illustrates an analysis of a 500 m walking distance through the road network, revealing spatial variations in accessibility to service centers.

The highest levels of accessibility are concentrated in areas with high functional diversity, while peripheral neighborhoods suffer from limited service coverage within walking distance. This reflects the need to redistribute services and improve pedestrian infrastructure to achieve spatial equity and urban sustainability.

6.2.6 Multiple uses of space

It is the possibility of employing the same physical space to perform multiple functions simultaneously or over different time periods to achieve higher efficiency in the use of spatial resources, as the space is used in multiple roles such as combining social, cultural, and economic activities within the same space. This pattern enhances social interaction within public spaces and increases their vitality [28]. The city of Kufa is distinguished by the presence of public spaces and squares, especially near its religious and cultural centers. Through field monitoring, we notice a doubling of commercial activity, social and religious activities, and pedestrian-only movement in front of the Sahla Mosque in the evening. During the day, car traffic returns to the same area, and this multiple use of space strengthens belonging to the place, social interaction, and continuity of life in public spaces, which enhances urban cohesion.

6.2.7 Continuity of urban activity

The continuity of the use of urban spaces and urban functions throughout the day (night and day) and on a daily basis, which ensures the continuous movement of the population and social interaction within the urban fabric, is characterized by the city of Kufa, according to its religious character, with continuous urban activity, see Figures 11-13, especially in the central areas of the city close to the religious shrines, where this characteristic gave it the continuity of some urban activities to remain active throughout the day, which enhanced the vitality and cohesion of the city.

11.png

Figure 11. Multi-functional urban structure in the city center at Sahla Street, including religious, public, green, and commercial uses with mixed vehicular and pedestrian circulation

As for the peripheral neighborhoods that suffer from functional separation and the dispersal of urban activities, there are fewer opportunities for movement and daily interaction of the population, which leads to the interruption of urban activity, which negatively affects the feeling of security and belonging and weakens urban cohesion.

12.png

13.png

Figure 13. Continuous population movement during day and night in the center of Kufa

6.2.8 Spatial continuity

Spatial continuity refers to the degree of connectivity and coherence within the urban fabric that supports uninterrupted movement and perceptual flow. In Kufa, abandoned and underutilized areas near the historic center account for a significant share of the core zone, contributing to fragmentation around the Great Mosque of Kufa and surrounding archaeological sites, including Qasr Al-Imara and areas extending toward the shrine of Maytham Al-Tammar and Al-Sahla Mosque. This fragmentation weakens visual and spatial continuity and reduces the overall cohesion of the historic urban landscape. The lack of integrated open-space planning and weak functional linkages further disrupt the perceptual unity of the city center. So, enhancing spatial continuity requires reconnecting heritage sites and open spaces into a coherent urban network that strengthens both historical identity and urban cohesion, see Figure 14.

14.png

6.3 Historical or temporal continuity

This indicator refers to the ability of a space or building to maintain its function over time while preserving its identity and primary role, with the possibility of adaptive reuse in a manner consistent with its historical significance. Temporal continuity extends beyond physical form to include the persistence of cultural and social meanings associated with a place. In the city of Kufa, several buildings continue to preserve their historical character and spiritual meanings derived from religious and historical narratives. The Great Mosque of Kufa, despite undergoing renovation using non-local materials, has retained its symbolic significance in the collective memory of visitors through its central courtyard and sacred sites, including the Maqam of the prophets and the Mihrab of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him). The mosque has continuously maintained its religious function since its establishment, accompanied by a steady increase in visitor movement over time, as illustrated in Figure 15. Similarly, the markets and streets surrounding the mosque continue to sustain commercial activities, closely linked to religious and social practices in the area. In addition, many traditional houses and alleyways within the historic city have preserved their original urban form and traditional character, as shown in Figure 15.

15.png

Figure 15. Traditional houses and alleyways in the Historic City Center of Kufa

6.3.1 Permeability indicator

Urban permeability in Kufa was assessed through two sub-indicators: block lengths and urban fabric entrances. Within the 1300 m range, Figure 16 shows 455 blocks with lengths ranging from 70–200 m, out of approximately 967 blocks.

The study area includes several major entrances connected to principal movement corridors, including Al-Jisr, Al-Sahla, Al-Maamal, Al-Sikka, Al-Cornish, Maytham Al-Tammar, Al-Taqa, and Al-Mutanabbi streets. These routes connect the Mosque of Kufa with surrounding areas, improving accessibility and reinforcing daily urban activity in the historic center, as shown in Figure 17.

16.png

17.png

6.4 Spatial growth direction

Spatial growth in Kufa was analyzed using historical maps and aerial imagery (1968, 2000, 2025) to assess urban expansion around the Great Mosque of Kufa. In 1968, development was concentrated in the historic core, with expansion mainly toward the northeast and northwest, strengthening accessibility, functional diversity, and urban cohesion around the center.

6.4.1 Urban expansion of Kufa City in 1968

Following the 14 July Revolution and residential land distribution, new neighborhoods emerged, supported by rural–urban migration driven by employment and services. Early expansion in Kufa concentrated around the Great Mosque of Kufa, extending mainly northeast toward the river and movement corridors, with dense development in Al-Waqf, Al-Jadida, Al-Saray, and early Al-Jumhuriya.

6.4.2 Urban expansion of Kufa City in 2000

Compared with 1968, Kufa experienced substantial urban growth while maintaining expansion around the historic center and toward the northeast. New planned neighborhoods emerged to the north and west, including Maysan, Al-Askari, Al-Mutanabbi, and Al-Jami’a, accompanied by relative improvements in road networks and urban cohesion, particularly near the city center and major movement corridors, see Figures 16-20.

18.png

19.png

20.png

6.4.3 Urban expansion of Kufa City in 2025

By 2025, Kufa experienced rapid and complex urban growth. The historic core remained cohesive with dense fabric and improved infrastructure, while the periphery expanded irregularly over agricultural land, forming informal settlements with limited services. Despite new educational and religious developments, urban cohesion remained strong in the center and weaker in peripheral areas.