Establishment of Sustainable Management Model for the Ujungpangkah’s Mangrove Essential Ecosystem Area, Gresik – East Java

The Ujungpangkah Mangrove Essential Ecosystem Area (MEEA) is one of the innovative conservation activities in Indonesia that should be emulated and fully supported. The Ujungpangkah Mangrove is part of the Essential Ecosystem Area (EEA), which has a strong legal basis through various regulations, including Government Regulation No. 108 of 2015 [1], Director General of Natural Resources and Ecosystem Conservation Regulation No. P.1/KSDAE/BPE2/KSA/4/2/ 2021 [2], and East Java Governor Decree No. 188/122/KPTS/ 013/2021 [3] concerning the Management of the Ujungpangkah MEEA, Gresik Regency. Uniquely, all these regulations were not established on the state-owned land, as is usually the case with conservation activities, but on land privately owned by the Ujungpangkah community. The awareness and agreement of the Ujungpangkah community to designate their land as a living space within the EEA-scheme is worthy of appreciation and support for its growth toward the sustainable welfare and prosperity of the Ujungpangkah community. The EEA Ujungpangkah also needs to be further developed into a national and global model for independent conservation activities.

The Ujungpangkah mangrove ecosystem, located at the mouth of the Bengawan Solo River, is part of an important ecological system on the north coast of East Java. This position makes the mangrove ecosystem in Ujungpangkah not only important locally but also plays an important role in the stability of the coastal ecoregion on a national scale. Ecologically, the Ujungpangkah mangroves play a vital role in protecting the coastline from abrasion, maintaining water quality, supporting biogeochemical cycles, and providing an important habitat for aquatic biota and migratory birds.

In addition to ecological dimensions, socio-economic factors also determine the sustainability of the EEA Ujungpangkah management. Coastal communities are highly dependent on fish, shellfish, and crab catches, whose life cycles are closely linked to mangrove ecosystems. However, economic pressures have led some communities to open new ponds or illegally cut mangrove trees. Furthermore, although there is a clear legal framework in place, there are still fundamental problems in terms of governance, particularly weak coordination between institutions, overlapping authorities, and limited capacity and funding at the local level. Policy implementation in the field is often ineffective due to weak law enforcement and a lack of synergy between management actors, both from the government and the community. Therefore, understanding the perceptions and preferences of local communities is a fundamental aspect of developing sustainable management strategies.

Unlike most conservation areas in Indonesia, which are established on state-owned land, the Ujungpangkah MEEA has a unique governance configuration because much of its territory lies on privately owned community land. As a result, all processes of protection, utilization, and access regulation rely on social initiatives, internal agreements, and collective community actions rather than top–down state instruments. This form of governance, rooted in private land ownership, creates a distinctive socio-ecological arena in which management dynamics evolve organically through a combination of cultural values, traditional resource-use practices, and community-driven innovations in responding to ecological changes, including the management of newly accreted land and fluctuations in mangrove conditions.

The selection of Ujungpangkah as the site for in-depth governance modeling is based on four strategic considerations. First, the private landownership structure provides a rare opportunity to examine how conservation regimes operate without strong state dominance. Second, the sustainability of the area is shaped by bottom-up community engagement, reflecting processes of adaptation, negotiation, and local knowledge-based management. Third, ecologically, Ujungpangkah’s position within the Bengawan Solo estuary makes it a key component in maintaining the stability of the coastal ecoregion of East Java, giving its ecological changes regional implications. Fourth, the combination of social, institutional, and ecological characteristics makes Ujungpangkah highly relevant as a demonstration model for managing EEA and as an example of community-based implementation of Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECM).

Lessons learned from Ujungpangkah MEEA can be observed from various dynamics occurring in the estuary area. The results of the study [4] – remote sensing and field measurements – show that in 2003, the distribution of mangroves was dominated by very low canopy cover (75%), then in 2015 and 2020 it began to increase to medium canopy cover (32.75% and 46.24%). On the one hand, this indicates that the designation of the Ujungpangkah MEEA has brought improvements to environmental conditions. On the other hand, significant mangrove damage has occurred due to leaf caterpillar infestations, suggesting that pressures on the ecosystem do not always stem from physical changes or large-scale anthropogenic activities.

Research [5] emphasized that the loss of mangroves directly reduces coastal protection capacity and the potential for climate change mitigation through blue carbon sequestration. Thus, mangrove degradation in Ujungpangkah is not only a local threat but also has implications for Indonesia's commitment to global climate change mitigation. Study [6] showed that the failure of mangrove conservation in Southeast Asia is generally caused by policy fragmentation and weak local institutions. On the other hand, study [7] showed that coastal mangroves, if managed sustainably, will maintain their resilience to disturbances, while the common property resources model states that the involvement of local stakeholders is very important to prevent loss of access and over-exploitation. Therefore, efforts to empower the Ujungpangkah community in building sustainable local welfare are a necessity that must be started immediately.

According to Chambers and Conway [8], the vulnerability of coastal communities' livelihoods causes them to tend to choose short-term strategies even though these have a negative impact on ecosystem sustainability. Meanwhile, study [9] explains that community-based mangrove management can increase collective awareness, reduce land conversion, and improve resource management. Several studies also show that the pattern of utilization contributes to the structural degradation of mangrove forests, as the conversion of mangrove land and reclaimed land into ponds continues to increase [10]. In addition to abrasion that erodes the land, the accretion process around the Bengawan Solo estuary has formed new reclaimed land as a result of sedimentation, which is then exploited in an unplanned manner by the community for economic activities.

Currently, the socio-ecological dynamics in the Ujungpangkah still reflect tensions between local economic needs and the urgency of sustainable conservation. The threats to mangroves in Ujungpangkah are complex and multidimensional: in addition to pressure from land conversion, there is also pollution, coastal dynamics, and weaknesses in regulation and community participation. This complexity requires management evaluations that consider not only quantitative aspects (area, coverage), but also ecosystem quality, sensitivity to disturbance, and institutional sustainability. The Ujungpangkah MEEA management approach needs to consider specific indicators such as vegetation structure and diversity, physical habitat conditions, land cover, and community perception and participation. Therefore, it can be clearly stated that the management of the Ujungpangkah area in facing complex ecological pressures, resulting from coastal dynamics in the form of abrasion and accretion, changes in estuary hydrology, and the expansion of land-based economic activities such as the opening of ponds and intensive aquaculture, needs to be addressed.

Based on all of the reasons above, a study to establish a sustainable management model for the Ujungpangkah MEEA is considered necessary and should be carried out, with the following objectives: 1) To analyze the range of perceptions and preferences of the community in the management of the Ujungpangkah MEEA; 2) To elaborate an effective, adaptive, and sustainable participatory management model for the Ujungpangkah MEEA; and 3) To elaborate on a recreational opportunity spectrum (ROS) for ecotourism programs that can generate new economic activities for the Ujungpangkah community.

3.1 Analysis of land cover dynamics Ujungpangkah MEEA

Analysis of Sentinel L2A imagery over the past 10 years (2015-2025; Figure 2) shows that there has been dynamic land change in the Ujungpangkah MEEA. There has been a decline in wetland/fishpond area from 4,232 ha (2015) to 3,360 ha (2020) and an increase back to 3,526 ha (2025). In the 2015-2020 period, the built-up area increased sharply from 1,648 ha to 2,640 ha, then decreased slightly to 2,418 ha in 2025; while the vegetated area showed a consistent growth trend from 1,624 ha to 1,831 ha and up to 2,248 ha. This pattern indicates a simultaneous transition in land use: some ponds or water areas were converted into settlements/infrastructure in the 2015-2020 phase, while in the subsequent 2021-2025 phase, there were efforts at reconversion and/or restoration that increased vegetation cover and some redistribution of pond areas.

tu_pian_2.png

Study [10] reported that two contradictory phenomena, accretion and abrasion, occurred in the coastal area of Ujungpangkah, causing changes in the shape of the coastline. They revealed that from 2006 to 2016, there had been 177.64 hectares of abrasion and 411.38 hectares of accretion. On the other hand, study [14] reported that a total of 6,500 hectares of land had been formed in the Ujungpangkah area. This land can be easily seen in the villages of Pangkah Wetan and Pangkah Kulon; it is estimated to be around 8-12 hectares per village per year. In the field, it can be seen that the emerging land then undergoes natural succession in the form of mangrove vegetation growth.

Theoretically, this phenomenon is consistent with the land-use change and coastal squeeze framework, in which land demand pressures (coastal development, urbanization, and pond expansion) interact with natural abrasion/accretion processes, triggering shifts in land cover categories [15]. Empirically, the conversion of mangroves to aquaculture ponds has been a major driver of mangrove cover loss in Southeast Asia and Indonesia, but when hydrological conditions are restored and there is local policy support, recent evidence shows that the effectiveness of restoration interventions and community-based/technology initiatives such as "Building with Nature" or hydrological restoration results in the regeneration of mangrove vegetation cover [15-17].

According to Zhou et al. [18], coastal areas are areas that experience changing ecological dynamics due to the reciprocal influence of land and sea. Sedimentation processes increase land area, either by attaching to the main landmass or creating small islands around estuaries. Therefore, the increase in vegetation area in UjungPangkah not only reflects the success of restoration/rehabilitation activities and natural accretion processes driven by new management practices under the MEEA-scheme, but also presents challenges, namely fluctuations in pond area and conversion of built-up land, which indicate vulnerability to anthropogenic pressures that certainly need to be continuously mitigated through integrated spatial planning and local policies.

3.2 Diversity of flora and fauna in the Ujungpangkah mangrove forest

Flora Diversity. Budiman et al. [19] explained that the flora found in EEA Ujungpangkah consists of mangrove plants that have undergone natural succession as well as those planted by the community. Field observations show that mangrove vegetation in the Ujung Pangkah area tends to grow in clusters and is not evenly distributed throughout the entire area of reclaimed land. This distribution pattern is influenced by the intensity of land use by the community, especially for aquaculture, agriculture, and other uses. As a result, most of the remaining mangrove vegetation is a remnant of the land conversion process that has been going on for decades. According to Zakiyah [20], this land use began in 1893, and the reclaimed land was opened up on a massive scale starting in 1984 for shrimp and fishponds. Similar findings were reported by Setyawan [21], who explained that the conversion of mangroves into ponds and agricultural land is the main cause of the decline in mangrove cover on the north coast of Java.

In this study, the results of vegetation inventory in the Banyuurip Mangrove Center (BMC) area show that there are no plant species classified as rare or endangered. From the list of existing species, no vegetation species are listed in the CITES Appendix or protected under Government Regulation No. 7 of 1999 [22] and Minister of Environment and Forestry Regulation No. P.106 of 2018 [23] was found. The dominant plants in this area are mostly pioneer species that are highly tolerant of extreme environmental conditions, such as high salinity and tidal fluctuations. The presence of these pioneer species indicates that the BMC area is still in the early stages of ecological succession and has not yet reached the climax stage of mangrove ecosystem development. These findings show that most plant species in the BMC area are still at a low risk level, but adaptive management is still needed to prevent habitat degradation that could reduce their conservation status in the future. A summary of vegetation diversity in the Ujung-pangkah MEEA can be seen in Table 3, while selected vegetation documentation is shown in Figure 3.

Fauna/Wildlife Diversity. The diversity of fauna in the Ujungpangkah MEEA shows a unique wildlife community structure and reflects the high ecological complexity of this coastal area. According to Sutopo [24], there are 90 species of birds, 1 species of mammal, and 1 species of herpetofauna in the Ujungpangkah area, occupying various types of habitats, ranging from primary mangroves, transitional pond areas, to muddy coastal edges. The richness of bird species present illustrates the ecological function of the Ujungpangkah Mangrove Ecosystem as an important bird area (IBA) and a crucial corridor for waterbirds and migrants traversing the East Asia-Australasia Flyway (EAA Flyway). The presence of species such as Numenius arquata, Mycteria cinerea, and Leptoptilos javanicus indicates high conservation value, as these species are globally listed as near threatened to endangered under the IUCN Red List, following BirdLife International assessments [25]. The presence of the Ardeidae, Laridae, and Scolopacidae families reinforces the indication of the role of mangrove ecosystems as foraging grounds and roosting sites for waterbirds, especially during the migration season. This condition is in line with the findings of study [26] that mangrove habitats in tropical regions serve as centers of coastal fauna diversity because they provide productive energy sources, protection, and high nutrients for various taxa. A summary of fauna diversity in the Ujungpangkah MEEA is presented in Table 4 and Figure 4.

Table 3. Flora diversity in the EEA Ujungpangkah

Table 4. Fauna diversity in the Ujungpangkah MEEA

tu_pian_3.png

Avicennia alba

tu_pian_4.png

Avicennia marina

tu_pian_5.png

Rhizophora mucronata

tu_pian_6.png

Calotropis gigantea

tu_pian_9.png

Excoecaria agallocha

tu_pian_10.png

Sonneratia caseolaris

tu_pian_11.png

Pelecanus conspicillatus

tu_pian_12.png

Pelecanus conspicillatus

tu_pian_13.png

Ardea cinerea

tu_pian_14.png

Lalage nigra

tu_pian_15.png

Bubulcus ibis

tu_pian_16.png

Centropus nigrorufus

tu_pian_17.png

Alcedo coerulescens

tu_pian_18.png

Egretta garzetta

tu_pian_19.png

Chlidonias leucopterus

tu_pian_21.png

Numenius madagascariensis

tu_pian_22.png

Ardea alba

tu_pian_23.png

Nycticorax nycticorax

In terms of a landscape ecology perspective, the fauna composition in the Ujungpangkah MEEA shows the interconnectedness between the mosaic of mangrove, pond, and wetland habitats as a single interacting ecological system. The presence of Macaca fascicularis (long-tailed macaque) and Varanus salvator (Asian water monitor) is an important indicator that there are still relatively intact segments of mangrove forest with a natural food supply.

However, the high dominance of water birds compared to mammals and herpetofauna indicates that the mangrove habitat in Ujungpangkah is under serious anthropogenic pressure, such as the conversion of ponds and human activities that limit the range of terrestrial fauna. Based on the intermediate disturbance hypothesis [29], moderate levels of disturbance can increase species diversity, but excessive disturbance will reduce community stability. Therefore, the sustainability of fauna diversity in the Ujungpangkah MEEA is highly dependent on the balance between ecological functions and human activities, which requires adaptive management based on habitat zoning and community involvement in ecosystem-based conservation.

3.3 Range of local community perceptions and preferences regarding the management of the Ujungpangkah MEEA

Respondent Characteristics. Overall, the characteristics of the respondents show similarities in socioeconomic patterns in the three villages, namely a predominance of male respondents, productive age, married status, native residents, secondary education, and low to middle income. This reflects the economic structure of rural communities, which is still dominated by the informal sector and small and medium-sized businesses. The age distribution of respondents was fairly even, with the largest proportion in the productive age range of 26-45 years (around 50-60%), and most respondents were married (58-71%); while 89-98% of respondents were native residents. This fact shows that this age group is the main actor in social, economic, and environmental management activities in the study area; it also indicates social attachment and responsibility towards the household and the surrounding environment. The demographic composition, indicating strong social cohesion and local identity, coupled with high proportions of active age groups, can enhance collective participation in ecosystem management, as social capital has been shown to facilitate collective action and environmental governance in community settings [30].

In the context of education and economics, the majority of respondents had a secondary education (high school/ vocational school/ Islamic high school) of 61–63%, while college graduates were still relatively low (< 20%). This illustrates the limited access to higher education in coastal areas, but also shows the potential of community groups with fairly good environmental literacy. The employment structure is dominated by fishermen and pond farmers (up to 51% in Banyuurip Village), followed by entrepreneurs and informal sector workers, which shows the community's economic dependence on the coastal ecosystem.

In terms of income, the majority (66%) of respondents earned less than the district minimum wage (UMK), while 27% earned the UMK (Rp. 4.6 million/month) and 7% earned above the UMK. This indicates economic vulnerability that could influence preferences for conservation policies. This condition is in line with the findings of study [31] that socio-economic vulnerability is an important factor in the sustainability of natural resource management, where the welfare of local communities is a prerequisite for the effective management of essential ecosystems such as mangroves.

Aspects of Knowledge about MEEA. In general, the data (Figure 5) shows that there is no polarization among actors regarding aspects of MEEA knowledge. The high level of knowledge among the people of Pangkahwetan Village is evidenced by the existence of village regulations to protect Ujungpangkah MEEA, including a ban on the exploitation of various bird species. However, when viewed in more detail, the data show that there is polarization in attitude scores or differentiation in community knowledge about the Ujungpangkah MEEA, where the male and female groups from Pangkahwetan gave a score of 6 (meaning high), while the groups from Pangkahkulon and Banyuurip gave a score of 5. This is also confirmed by the Kruskal-Wallis test, where the H value = 9.818 and the p-value is 0.007 < α = 5%, meaning that there is a significant difference between those actors.

tu_pian_24.jpg

Information: Rating Score: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Somewhat disagree, 4 = Neutral, 5 = Somewhat agree, 6 = Agree, and 7 = Strongly agree. Aspect and Criteria: Essential Aspects of Vegetation: C1 = Mangroves play an important role in preventing erosion; C2 = Mangroves help maintain coastal water quality; C3 = Mangroves provide habitat for aquatic biota; C4 = Mangroves provide habitat for various terrestrial and arboreal wildlife; C5 = Mangroves are important for absorbing carbon from the air; C6 = Mangroves can assist in the natural recovery/regeneration of coastal ecosystems; C7= Mangroves are capable of maintaining the balance of the coastal environment. Essential Aspects of Bird Species: C1= Local birds (resident/common species) are present; C2 = Endemic birds are present; C3 = Migratory birds are present; C4 = Rare birds are present; C5 = Protected birds are present; C6 = Vulnerable and critically endangered birds are present; C7 = Endangered birds are present. Essential Aspects of Aanslibbbing/ Emerged Land: C1 = Land formation provides new space for mangrove growth; C2 = Land formation supports the regeneration process of mangrove ecosystems; C3 = Land formation is important in preventing seawater intrusion (the entry of seawater/salt water into inland areas); C4 = Land reclamation naturally increases the area of coastal land; C5 = Land reclamation provides new habitats for coastal biota; C6 = Land reclamation helps reduce the rate of coastal abrasion/land erosion; C7 = Land reclamation is a potential resource for use in the agriculture and fisheries sectors. Essential Socio-Cultural Aspects: C1 = There is a strong tradition of community cooperation in Ujungpangkah MEEA; C2 = There is historical and religious heritage (Masjid Jamik Ainul Yaqin & Beji Aulia) in Ujungpangkah MEEA; C3 = There are unique traditions (Ritukan and Ruwat Rijoko) in Ujungpangkah MEEA; C4 = There is a local identity in terms of mangrove tourism that is widely known by the community; C5 = There is a local identity in terms of seafood cuisine that is widely known by the community; C6 = There is a local identity as an area for fish and shrimp farming that is widely known by the community; C7 = There is a local identity in terms of strong spirituality that is widely known by the community.

Figure 5. Aspects of knowledge about the MEEA

Although there are differences in knowledge, it can be said that this distribution shows that ecological awareness has grown throughout the village, even though a deep understanding of the function of mangroves is still uneven. However, several village officials and managers of Ujungpangkah MEEA recognize the role of mangroves as erosion barriers, carbon sinks, and habitats for coastal wildlife. This knowledge is rooted in the experience of living alongside the ecosystem and the fact that the majority of the community are fishermen. This phenomenon indicates the existence of organic ecological literacy, which is an important basis for community-based management. Studies [32, 33] explain that from the perspective of Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECM), known as EEA in Indonesia, such local knowledge functions as social capital that strengthens the legitimacy of collaborative governance. Furthermore, Lovelock et al. [34] emphasized that ecological awareness that grows from these daily practices is an important indicator of the close relationship between local wisdom, social learning, and conservation sustainability.

Bottom-Up Management Approach. In general, the analysis results (Figure 6) show that there is no polarization of direction among actors regarding the bottom-up management approach; however, there is polarization of attitude scores, where only the male group in Pangkahkulon gave a score of 5 (somewhat high), while the other five actors gave a score of 6 (highly significant). This data is reinforced by the Kruskal-Wallis test, where the H value = 9.200 and the p-value is 0.010 < α = 5%, meaning that there is a significant difference between actors.

tu_pian_25.jpg

Information: Rating Score: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Somewhat disagree, 4 = Neutral, 5 = Somewhat agree, 6 = Agree, and 7 = Strongly agree. Aspect and Criteria Bottom-Up Management Approach: Bottom-Up Management of Vegetation: C1 = Vegetation management is carried out independently by individuals; C2 = Vegetation management is carried out independently by community groups in each village; C3 = Vegetation management is carried out independently by community groups regulated through mutual agreement; C4 = Vegetation management is carried out independently by community groups with assistance from the village government; C5 = Vegetation management is carried out collaboratively between community groups and local government; C6 = Vegetation management is carried out collaboratively between the community, non-governmental organizations, and universities; C7 = Vegetation management is carried out in a coordinated manner involving individuals, community groups, and the government together. Bottom-Up Management of Wildlife: C1 = Rules and sanctions for hunting animals in each hamlet within a village; C2 = Rules and sanctions for hunting animals in each village; C3 = Rules and sanctions for hunting animals jointly across 3 villages; C4 = Rules for redistributing benefits from wildlife management to hunters and hamlets; C5 = Rules for redistribution of benefits to hunters, hamlets, and villages; C6 = Rules for redistribution of benefits to hunters, hamlets, villages, and the Natural Resources Conservation Agency (BKSDA); C7 = Rules for redistribution of benefits to hunters, hamlets, villages, subdistricts, and the Natural Resources Conservation Agency (BKSDA). Bottom-Up Management of Aanslibbbing/ Emerged Land: C1 = Rules and sanctions on the use of reclaimed land in each hamlet in the village; C2 = Rules and sanctions on the use of reclaimed land in each village; C3 = Rules and sanctions on the joint use of reclaimed land by three villages; C4 = Rules on the redistribution of the benefits of reclaimed land to individuals and hamlets; C5 = Rules on the redistribution of benefits from reclaimed land for individuals, hamlets, and villages; C6 = Rules on the redistribution of benefits from reclaimed land for individuals, hamlets, villages, and the BKSDA; C7 = Rules on the redistribution of benefits from reclaimed land for individuals, hamlets, villages, subdistricts, and the BKSDA. Bottom-Up Management of Socio-Cultural Affairs: C1 = Rules for organizing traditional socio-cultural activities in each hamlet within a village; C2 = Rules for organizing socio-cultural activities in each village; C3 = Rules for organizing joint socio-cultural activities involving three villages; C4 = Rules for redistributing the benefits of cultural activities to individuals and hamlets; C5 = Rules for redistributing the benefits of cultural activities to individuals, hamlets, and villages; C6 = Rules for redistributing the benefits of cultural activities to individuals, hamlets, villages, and customary institutions; C7 = Rules for redistributing the benefits of cultural activities to individuals, hamlets, villages, sub-districts, and customary institutions. Aspects and Criteria of the Top-Down Management Approach Top-Down Management of Vegetation: C1 = Government designation of mangrove vegetation zones; C2 = Provision of mangrove seedlings through official programs; C3 = Strict regulations on logging or felling; C4 = Government funding for mangrove vegetation rehabilitation; C5 = Vegetation monitoring conducted jointly with community groups and utilizing modern technology (satellites, drones, etc.); C6 = Legal protection for damaged vegetation areas; C7 = Vegetation research supported by official institutions (universities, NGOs, etc.). Top-Down Management of Wildlife: C1= The government establishes wildlife protection regulations based on legislation; C2= Regulations prohibiting the hunting of local, endemic, and migratory birds are established in accordance with national regulations; C3 = Enforcement regulations against wildlife protection violations by authorities are established; C4 = Regulations on the designation of wildlife conservation areas by local and central governments are established; C5 = Regulations on the restriction and control of wildlife trade based on protected species lists are established; C6 = Regulations on routine monitoring of wildlife populations by relevant government agencies are established; C7 = Establish regulations on administrative and criminal sanctions for wildlife protection violations. Top-Down Management of Aanslibbbing/ Emerged Land: C1 = The use of reclaimed land is determined by local government regulations in accordance with their authority; C2 = The use of reclaimed land is determined based on national laws and regulations; C3 = The use of reclaimed land is regulated through official zoning decisions by the government; C4 = Utilization of reclaimed land is routinely monitored by relevant government agencies; C5 = Utilization of reclaimed land is regulated with clear restrictions to prevent destructive conversion; C6 = Utilization of reclaimed land is subject to administrative or criminal sanctions in the event of violations; C7 = Utilization of reclaimed land is directed to support the public interest in accordance with national and regional development policies. Top-Down Management of Socio-Cultural Issues: C1 = Active community participation in preserving local traditions and culture; C2 = Involvement of traditional and community leaders in decision-making for the Area; C3 = Village deliberation forums to formulate socio-cultural rules in the Area; C4 = Community cooperation in preserving cultural values and environmental sustainability; C5 = A mutual agreement to use local wisdom as a guideline for community behavior; C6 = Community participation in arts, culture, and environmental education activities in the area; C7 = The enforcement of customary norms to support the protection of the area.

Figure 6. Bottom-up and top-down management approach

Although each village has different policies in managing mangrove resources, wildlife, and reclaimed land, in principle, the communities of the three villages agree that the Ujungpangkah mangrove ecosystem and all its ecological elements must be protected and preserved to support human life and other creatures. This data also reflects the high level of community participation in mutual assistance activities, deliberative forums, and monitoring of wildlife and tidal flats.

Such social mechanisms show that governance is not only interpreted as administrative policy, but as a reflection of values in society and a sense of responsibility to preserve sustainability. These findings confirm that the success of community-based management does not depend on regulatory formalities, but on the sustainability of social relations and a sense of ownership of resources. Thus, Ujungpangkah demonstrates a form of adaptive governance in which the community is the main actor in conservation, not merely the recipient of policy. This is in line with what is explained by studies [35, 36] that co-management models rooted in social and cultural norms have been proven to strengthen compliance with and the effectiveness of conservation policies.

Top-Down Management Approach. The analysis results (Figure 6) show that there is no polarization of direction and polarization of attitude scores between the three village groups; both male and female groups gave a score of 6 or higher. This is also confirmed by the Kruskal-Wallis test, which concluded that there were no significant differences between actors (H value = 0.000 and p-value 1.000 > α = 5%). This indicates that there is a fairly good understanding among all elements of society regarding various local rules and policies in the management of the Ujungpangkah mangrove ecosystem. The implementation of regulations such as the Village Regulation (PERDES) prohibiting bird hunting and the establishment of mangrove utilization zoning have proven to reduce hunting activities and strengthen conservation discipline among the people of Ujungpangkah. This pattern reflects a shift from a control model to facilitative governance that enables collaboration between the government and residents in protecting coastal resources. These findings are in line with the views of studies [37, 38] that the effectiveness of conservation policies is largely determined by cross-level synergy and coordination between actors in area governance. Stable regulatory performance in Ujungpangkah confirms that top-down policies accompanied by social legitimacy can strengthen the socio-ecological resilience of coastal communities.

tu_pian_26.png

Positive Perceptions of Mangrove Ecotourism. In various indicators, the analysis results (Figure 7) show that men and women from the villages of Pangkahwetan and Banyuurip gave scores of 6.3 to 6.2, while men and women from Pangkahkulon gave scores of 5.5. The Kruskal-Wallis test shows that there is a significant difference (H value = 13.667 and p-value 0.001 < α = 5%). However, in the context of polarization, the data shows that the positive perception of the entire community towards mangrove ecotourism is in the high category, or a score of 6. This indicates the high enthusiasm of the communities in the three villages for the idea of developing mangrove ecotourism in the Ujungpangkah MEEA, as the villages of Banyuurip and Pangkahkulon have already developed mangrove trail facilities, observation towers, and educational tours on mangrove nurseries and creative economic products.

Negative Perceptions of Mangrove Ecotourism. In many ways, the data (Figure 7) shows that there is polarization in the community's attitude scores regarding negative perceptions of mangrove ecotourism, where the Banyuurip male group gave a score of 6, meaning they agreed, while the Pangkahkulon group gave a score of 4, and the Pangkahwetan group and the Banyuurip female group gave a score of 5. This differentiation in scores is also confirmed by the Kruskal-Wallis test, where the H value = 35.533 and p-value 0.000 < α = 5%, meaning that there is a significant difference between actors. This indicates a more objective understanding among the Banyuurip men's group that ecotourism activities can have negative impacts if not managed properly and correctly.

In addition, this critical attitude is also strongly suspected to be due to the existence of an economic integration area for fishermen, ecotourism, and mangrove conservation in Banyuurip Village, which is in a state of "suspended animation" and tends to be neglected. Rachmatullah et al. [37] stated that the polarization of negative perceptions of ecotourism occurs due to differences in experience, education, orientation, and motivation of individuals or groups in interpreting various ecotourism activities and patterns that they know and experience. Additionally, community vigilance and critical responses are forms of ecological vigilance, which is critical awareness of the risks of exploiting resources [39]. In ensuring the sustainability of ecotourism, Simkins et al. [40] reminded that without a visitor capacity control system, mangrove destinations are prone to ecological pressure. In this regard, negative public perceptions are not a form of rejection of tourism, but rather a reflection of awareness to maintain a balance between economic benefits and environmental sustainability; this issue presents the ecological maturity of the community, which has been formed through direct experience in managing the area.

tu_pian_27.jpg

Perceptions of Birds. The results of data analysis (Figure 8) show polarization of attitude scores among actors, with all actors giving a score of 6 (meaning agree), while the Pangkahkulon women group gave a score of 5, meaning somewhat agree, regarding their perceptions of birds. This is also evident in the Kruskal-Wallis test, where the H value = 15.737 and the p-value is 0.000 < α = 5%, meaning that there is a significant difference between actors. This one-point difference indicates a variation in the intensity of support, but not a divergence in attitude (no divergent attitudinal polarity)- where all groups remain inclined to support bird protection.

Similar findings were reported by Quevedo et al. [41] in a study of mangrove community perceptions in Eastern Samar, Philippines, where the majority of respondents recognized the ecological and cultural value of mangroves despite variations in demographics and levels of local involvement. This confirms that all elements of society in the three villages recognize the importance of birds in maintaining the balance of the mangrove ecosystem. This is evidenced by various appeals and village regulations to preserve the sustainability of the mangrove ecosystem and birds. The study by Qurniati et al. [42] found that the community's perception of mangroves is very positive, including aspects of biodiversity such as birds, despite varying levels of concern and participation between villages.

Perceptions of Bird Hunting. Data analysis (Figure 8) shows that there is polarization in attitude scores on the issue of bird hunting in EEA Ujungpangkah; the Pangkahwetan and Banyuurip villages gave higher scores (score 6) than Pangkahkulon village, which gave a score of 5. The Kruskal-Wallis test also proves that there are significant differences between actors (H value = 13.164 and p-value 0.001 < α = 5%). Although there were differences in attitude scores, overall, it can be said that there was no polarization of opinion among actors on the issue of bird hunting, with the community firmly rejecting the practice of bird hunting in the three villages. However, field observations found two young individuals from outside the village who were still hunting by shooting (Figure 9), indicating weak social control at the grassroots level. This phenomenon indicates that informal regulations by the local community are strong enough to control the behavior of their own citizens, but are not yet able to reach external actors. These findings are in line with the research [43, 44], which shows that the hunting and trade of wild birds in Indonesia is generally carried out by non-local actors who take advantage of weak community supervision and the high economic value of wildlife. In addition, the success of coastal communities in controlling hunting is highly dependent on the strength of local norms and village institutional support [45].

tu_pian_28.jpg

tu_pian_29.jpg

tu_pian_30.jpg

Therefore, a collaborative mechanism between the community, village government, and law enforcement agencies is needed to strengthen supervision and enforcement of regulations in the field, as well as to raise awareness across villages about the importance of maintaining bird populations as an indicator of mangrove ecosystem health. Empirically, study [46] in China and study [47] in Brazil on hunting dynamics and community attitudes have shown that social norms and cultural practices influence whether hunting occurs or is suppressed, and that community-based interventions (in the form of local regulations, exclusion zones, and community monitoring) consistently reduce hunting activity and increase bird abundance in community-protected sites.

tu_pian_31.png

Perceptions of Facility and Infrastructure Conditions. The results of data analysis (Figure 10) prove that there is polarization of attitude scores among actors, where the communities of Pangkahkulon and Banyuurip give fairly good ratings (score 5), while the community of Pangkahwetan gives higher scores (score 6) for the condition of facilities and infrastructure in the Ujungpangkah MEEA. The difference in attitude scores is also in line with the Kruskal-Wallis test, with a value of H = 20.582 and a p-value of 0.000 < α = 5%, meaning that there is a significant difference between actors. Although there is a differentiated attitude score, the data show that there is no polarization between actors. This indicates that the condition of facilities and infrastructure in the three villages is generally good to very good. There are several notes from the communities of Pangkahkulon and Banyuurip regarding routine maintenance of mangrove trails, observation towers, and the provision of trash bins in tourist areas, accompanied by active participation from all elements of society.

Studies of community perceptions in various mangrove areas have found similar patterns: demographic or location variations often result in differences in intensity scores, but the majority of communities still show a basic consensus on the importance of facilities that support conservation and local welfare [41, 48]. Research by Afifah et al. [49] explains that most communities have a positive perception of the development of mangrove tourism facilities (tourist trails, guides, souvenirs, parking), and support community involvement in maintaining these facilities so that they continue to function properly.

tu_pian_32.jpg

Information: Rating Score: 1 = Very bad, 2 = Bad, 3 = Somewhat bad, 4 = Ordinary, 5 = Somewhat good, 6 = Good; and 7 = Very good. Aspect and Criteria: Preferences for Mangrove Management: C1 = Strengthening of local regulations on the management of essential areas is implemented; C2 = Incentive systems for environmental conservation communities are implemented; C3 = Profit-sharing schemes between villages and tourism managers are clarified; C4= Mechanisms for transparency in tourism fund management are developed; C5 = Collaboration with universities and research institutions is enhanced; C6 = Public transportation access to tourism areas is expanded; C7 = Coastal disaster mitigation is included in management plans. Preferences for Mangrove Ecotourism Development: C1= Mangrove ecotourism is geared towards sustainable economic benefits; C2 = Mangrove ecotourism is developed based on local wisdom; C3 = Mangrove ecotourism is complemented with educational tour packages; C4 = Mangrove ecotourism is managed with a transparent ticketing system; C5 = Mangrove ecotourism is promoted through digital media; C6 = Mangrove ecotourism is geared towards family and educational tourism; C7 = Mangrove ecotourism is developed based on the principle of carrying capacity. Preferences for Mangrove Rehabilitation and Restoration: C1 = Mangrove replanting is carried out in critical areas; C2 = Maintenance of rehabilitated mangroves is carried out periodically; C3 = Ecosystem restoration is directed at increasing biodiversity; C4 = Control of invasive species is carried out in mangrove areas; C5 = Rehabilitation is carried out with the involvement of local community groups; C6 = Bioengineering technology is applied to strengthen the coastline; C7 = Rehabilitation monitoring programs are carried out with clear indicators. Preferences for Bird Protection and Conservation: C1 = Bird habitat zoning is carried out without disrupting tourism activities; C2 = Bird hunting season is determined according to the migration season; C3 = Core bird habitat areas are designated as no-hunting zones; C4 = Bird population monitoring is carried out regularly; C5 = Community education on the ecological value of birds is strengthened; C6 = Migratory bird conservation programs are supported through community activities; C7 = Law enforcement against illegal bird hunting is tightened. Preferences for Economic Capital Assistance C1: = Soft loan schemes for mangrove ecotourism businesses are provided; C2 = Capital support for local culinary businesses is expanded; C3 = Business capital assistance is directed at coastal women's groups; C4 = Access to microfinance for mangrove-based product artisans is strengthened; C5 = Revolving fund programs are provided for small community businesses; C6 = Incentive support is provided for active conservation groups; C7 = Financial assistance is provided for local tourism businesses. Preferences for Facility and Infrastructure Development: C1: = Mangrove tracking trails are built using environmentally friendly materials; C2 = Bird observation towers are provided at strategic points; C3 = Small piers are repaired for boat access; C4 = Separate trash bins are provided throughout the tourist area; C5 = A mangrove information and education center is built at the main location; C6 = Road access to the mangrove area is improved; C7 = Clean water and sanitation facilities are improved for visitors. Preferences for Community Empowerment: C1 = Community organization management training is provided regularly; C2 = School-based environmental education is strengthened in coastal villages; C3 = Professional facilitation of training for local tour guides; C4 = Workshops on mangrove product processing are conducted for business groups; C5 = Young conservation cadres are trained to monitor habitats; C6 = Capacity building activities for women's groups are expanded; C7 = Multi-stakeholder communication forums are established on an ongoing basis.

Figure 11. Preferences for the development of the Ujungpangkah MEEA

MEEA Development Preferences. Data analysis (Figure 11) shows that all three villages gave high average scores (score 6) for mangrove ecotourism development preferences. This is also confirmed by the Kruskal-Wallis descriptive statistics, where there are no significant differences between actors (H = 0.000 and p-value 1.000 > α = 5%). For the community, in addition to the development of road infrastructure, tourism facilities, and marketing aspects, the dimension of pro-conservation ecotourism human resource development is also very important to support long- term ecotourism development. In addition, the community tends to propose a development model that emphasizes conservation, education, and transparent governance through collaboration with various external collaborators such as universities, the private sector, and NGOs. This is also in line with studies [11, 37], where ecologically sustainable ecotourism must integrate concern for the environment, society, and economy, and be based on community-based principles so that the community obtains tangible benefits. This view is in line with study [32], which emphasizes that community-based management strengthens the social legitimacy and ecological sustainability of conservation areas.

Personal Motivation for MEEA. Data analysis (Figure 12) shows that all actors have high personal motivation (score of 6) for the existence of the Ujungpangkah MEEA. Furthermore, statistical tests also show that there are no significant differences between actors (H value = 4.100 and p-value 0.129 > α = 5%). This reflects the strong desire and motivation of the community to learn, acquire skills, and contribute to nature conservation (MEEA). This phenomenon indicates the existence of self-driven ecological commitment or intrinsic motivation that arises from a sense of responsibility towards the environment and pride in coastal identity. Blanton et al. [50] explain that pride in environmental contributions is a strong predictor of the sustainability of conservation behavior. In line with study [51], argue that communities with intrinsic motivation tend to have higher socio-ecological resilience to economic pressures. The high score indicates that conservation in Ujungpangkah is not merely instructional. Rather, it has evolved into an integral part of the community's ethical way of life.

tu_pian_33.png

Communal Motivation for MEEA. The results of data analysis (Figure 12) show no polarization of attitude scores among actors regarding communal motivation in the utilization of EEA. This data is also reinforced by the Kruskal-Wallis test, which concluded that there were no differences between village community groups (H value = 1.025 and p-value 0.599 > α = 5%). These high scores indicate a strong collective spirit in interpreting EEAs not merely as ecological areas, but also as symbols of togetherness and village social identity. The community places mangroves and birds as elements of living culture that strengthen social solidarity and a sense of belonging to a shared living space. This phenomenon is consistent with the results of research [52], which shows that the success of community-based ecotourism is determined by the community's ability to maintain a balance between ecological, social, and spiritual dimensions. Estradivari et al. [32] also emphasize that strong solidarity and social capital are the foundation for the success of conservation areas outside the formal state protection system. Therefore, the communal motivation of the Ujungpangkah community is not only a social force but also an ecological instrument that ensures the sustainability of the area through collective pride and a shared ecological identity.

The dynamics of land cover change in the Ujungpangkah MEEA during 2015–2025 show a complex transition between ecosystem degradation and recovery, where an increase in vegetation area indicates the initial success of restoration efforts and natural accretion. However, fluctuations in the area of ponds and built-up areas reflect the continuing high level of anthropogenic pressure, requiring the integration of spatial planning and ecosystem-based management policies to ensure the long-term sustainability of the area. Furthermore, in terms of social data, overall data on perceptions, preferences, and motivations show that there is no polarization among community groups regarding the management of the Ujungpangkah MEEA. Then, in the context of polarization of attitude scores, the data show that there is polarization of attitude scores between community groups (both men and women) in the three villages. The differentiation in perceptions is strongly suspected to originate from the motives and experiences of each actor, accompanied by differences in local policies on mangrove management based on the autonomy of each village. However, the community agrees that the existence of the Ujungpangkah MEEA is very important and crucial for the survival of the local community in the three villages. All elements of the community believe that, in addition to the Ujungpangkah being a protector of all living things, the Ujungpangkah MEEA has also made an important contribution in supporting the socio-economic and cultural dynamics of the community for decades. Furthermore, with the various dynamics that exist, it is necessary to introduce several ideas to strengthen the management of the EEA Ujungpangkah, including: A) Integrated Socio-Ecological Restoration and Strengthening Ecotourism Programs; B) Optimizing Adaptive and Participatory Governance Models through Adaptive Co-Management, Establishing Multi-Stakeholder Forums, and Strengthening Local Social and Leadership Capacity; C) Integrating Multi-Level Policies and Strengthening Local Policies.