Maria Theresia Sri Budiastuti*
| Desy Setyaningrum | Supriyono | Azkya Sabrina Fahma
© 2025 The authors. This article is published by IIETA and is licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
OPEN ACCESS
High rice consumption, while low rice production, is a challenge for Indonesia, which is exacerbated by decreasing land availability and the impact of climate change. Upland rice cultivation increases rice production by utilizing dry land. The research aims to examine the effect of water treatment and organic fertilizer doses on the growth and yield of upland rice. The study used a Randomized Complete Block Design with two factors. The first factor was water stress with four levels: control, ¾, ½, and ¼ Field Capacity. The second factor was the dose of organic goat manure fertilizer with four levels: 0, 10, 20, and 30 tons.ha-1. Water treatment did not affect the growth and yield of upland rice. The efficiency of water use in the field capacity treatment was 8.35 kg.l-1 and increased in the water stress treatment. The dose of cow manure fertilizer of 10 tons.ha-1 has encouraged plant height growth, number of leaves, and productive tillers, while the dose of 30 tons.ha-1 increased biomass and number of panicles. The combination of field capacity water treatment with 10 tons.ha-1 of goat manure fertilizer produced the highest number of grains per panicle. Organic fertilizer can optimize yields in limited water conditions.
field capacity, goat manure fertilizer, number of grains per panicle, number of panicles per hill, water stress
Rice is a staple food source for the Indonesian people, with an average annual consumption rate of 80.9 kg/capita in 2023 [1]. The need for rice is increasing along with the rapid increase in the Indonesian population, with a growth rate of 1.11% [2]. The population of Indonesia in 2024 is 281,603.8 thousand people. The level of rice consumption is not supported by rice production of only 53,142,726.65 tons [3]. Rice production in 2024 decreased by 1.57% compared to 2023, which was 53,980,993.19. The population of Indonesia is projected to reach 322 million in 2050, and large consumption will increase by 45%. One of the causes of the decline in rice production is the rice harvest area, which is only 10,046,135.36 ha in 2024. The rice harvest area in 2024 decreased by 1.64% compared to 2023, which was 10,213,705.17 ha [4]. In addition, climate anomalies in Indonesia, such as increasing air temperatures and rainfall fluctuations, exacerbate the decline in rice production [5, 6].
Rice is a semi-aquatic plant that depends on rainfall and temperature [7, 8]. High temperatures and shifts in planting seasons cause a decrease in irrigated rice yields by 21%. This is due to reduced photosynthesis, increased aging of functional leaves, reduced biological synthesis of starch and starch addition, duration of grain filling, and decreased grain weight [9]. Wet and dry water management with only 30% water content causes a decrease in biomass, leaf area, panicle density, number of florets per panicle, and lower floret fertility [10]. Alternating wetting and drying treatments in rice cultivation reduce yields by 26% but show 19% higher water productivity than flooding treatments [11]. Rice can withstand soil water tensions of up to 10–20 kPa [12]. These characteristics encourage rice cultivation on non-flooded land with proper irrigation management.
Agricultural intensification efforts, such as upland rice cultivation, can be carried out to address the imbalance between rice consumption and rice production in Indonesia. Upland rice is a rice plant that can grow in aerobic soil conditions [13, 14] because it has thicker leaves and cuticles, and fewer stomata than lowland rice. However, the constraints in upland rice cultivation with limited water are nutrients, soil fertility, and soil organic carbon. Fertilization plays a role in increasing nutrients. Long-term fertilization with chemical fertilizers shows a trend of decreasing yields [15, 16], while the combination of organic and chemical fertilizers increases yields from year to year. Combining organic and inorganic fertilizers can reduce nutrient loss and water use efficiency [16]. The effectiveness of inorganic fertilizers is closely related to water availability [17]. However, continuous application of inorganic fertilizers can reduce soil organic matter, nutrients, minerals, microbial activity, soil fertility, and harden the soil [18, 19]. Applying organic fertilizer effectively improves soil fertility and microbial community structure [20]. One of the organic fertilizers is goat manure, which can increase soil fertility, restore soil organic content, reduce production costs, and increase farmer profits [21]. Goat manure contains lower C/N compared to cow manure, and chicken manure encourages rapid decomposition of organic matter so that nutrient release is faster and more stable [22].
Organic goat manure fertilizer contains high nitrogen, 1.1-1.5% [23]. Nitrogen plays a role in the growth and development of rice because it contributes to the accumulation of carbohydrates in leaves, stems, and sheaths during the pre-cutting stage and in grain during the filling stage by becoming a component of photosynthesis [24, 25]. Rice yield is correlated with soil organic carbon content, total nitrogen, available nitrogen, total phosphorus, and available phosphorus [26]. Based on research [27], applying goat manure fertilizer can increase the growth and yield of rice. High rice yields are supported by increased nitrogen absorption because nitrogen is remobilized from vegetative organs to grain until grain formation is complete [28]. The potential for nitrogen absorption by plants is influenced by water availability [29]. Cultivation of dryland rice with organic fertilizer is an effort to increase dryland productivity and rice yields. Based on research by Alavan et al. The combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers 50:50 produces 10 t ha−1 in several dryland rice varieties, namely Cirata, Limboto, Situ Bagendit, and Situ Patenggang. Study [30] found that the watering interval and the method of applying organic fertilizer from manure affect plant height and the number of productive panicles per planting. The novelty of this research is the treatment of water stress based on field capacity and the dose of organic fertilizer from goat manure in dryland rice cultivation. The study aims to examine the effect of water treatment and the dose of organic fertilizer on the growth and yield of dryland rice.
The research was conducted in the Greenhouse Laboratory at 170 meters above sea level in October 2024 - February 2025. The research location has an average light intensity of 12,500.56 lux and an average air temperature in the morning of 27.78℃, afternoon 32.71℃, and evening 29.47℃. The research used a Complete Randomized Block Design with two factors. The first factor is water stress with four levels: Control or field capacity; ¾ Field Capacity; ½ Field Capacity, and ¼ Field Capacity. The second factor is the dose of organic goat manure fertilizer with four levels, namely 0, 10, 20, and 30 tons.ha-1. It was repeated 3 times to obtain 48 experimental units. The soil used for the study had a pH of 5.04 (acidic), total nitrogen 0.70% (high), total phosphorus 6.0 ppm (low), total potassium 157ppm (low), organic carbon 0.14% (very low), and C/N 0.2 (very low). The materials used in the study were upland rice seeds of the Situ Bagendit variety, organic goat manure fertilizer, planting media with alfisol soil, Urea fertilizer, KCl, and SP36. The tools used were 40x50 cm polybags, digital scales, plant ovens, and cultivation measuring tools such as shovels, hoes, and diggers. The goat manure fertilizer used contained 2.33% total nitrogen, 0.47% total phosphorus, 5.60% total potassium, 1.92% organic N, 0.21% N-NH4, 0.21% N-NO3, 35.31% organic C, and a C/N ratio of 15.12.
Rice seeds were soaked in distilled water for 24 hours, and seed treatment was carried out with an insecticide containing the active ingredient thiamectosam 350 g/l (2 drops). Furthermore, the seeds were spread and wrapped for 24 hours. The seeds were planted in polybags with three seeds in one planting hole in the polybag, with a depth of 2-3 cm. The planting distance is 20 cm × 20 cm. Irrigation is carried out every two days in the afternoon with a volume according to the treatment. Field capacity was determined using a pressure-membrane apparatus. Undisturbed soil samples were taken using a core ring, then slowly saturated from the bottom until all the pores of the medium were filled with water. Next, the soil sample was placed on a ceramic plate in a pressure chamber and subjected to a pressure of 0.33 bar (−33 kPa) until the water retained by gravity was expelled and equilibrium was reached. Afterward, the sample was weighed to obtain its wet weight, then dried in an oven at 105 ± 5℃ until it reached a constant weight [31]. The determination of water requirements for field capacity treatment was done using the gravimetric method, where the soil in the polybag is weighed first and then watered on the media until saturated and left for 8 hours. The volume of water the soil absorbs is the difference between the volume of water poured and the volume of water collected. Fertilization was done twice, namely, basic fertilizer and follow-up fertilizer. Basic fertilizer was done when planting with 200 kg/Ha Urea, 50 kg/Ha KCL, dan 50 kg/Ha SP36. Follow-up fertilizer KCl and SP36 at 30 Days After Planting (DAP) as much as 50 kg/ha, and Urea at 65 DAP as much as 75 kg/ha. Rice harvesting was carried out at 102 DAP. Harvesting was carried out when the plants had shown maturity, followed by 95% of the grains being golden yellow, the panicles drooping, the grains of rice feeling hard when pressed, and the tips of the leaves beginning to turn brown/dry out. Observations were made on growth variables carried out nine weeks after planting, including plant height, number of leaves, leaf area, and productive tillers. The yield variables were observed at one hundred and four days after planting, including plant biomass, number of panicles per hill, number of grains per hill, weight of dry harvested grain, and weight of 1000 seeds. Calculate leaf area using the gravimetric method at the maximum vegetative phase, which was fifty-four days after planting. The data obtained were analyzed using variance with the F test at a level of 5% and if significant, continued with a real difference test using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at a level of 5%.
3.1 Growth
Water treatment did not affect the height of rice plants. The study's results are from research [32], which found that upland rice growth and yield were higher in dry than in flooded cultivation. This is because drought-tolerant upland rice increases aquaporin genes in root tissue, such as OsPIP1; 3 and OsPIP2, to maintain cell turgor under water stress, thereby facilitating more efficient water absorption and internal redistribution [33]. In addition, upland rice roots are longer in the 10-20 cm soil layer under drought conditions [34]. The dose of goat manure fertilizer affects the height of rice plants, and a dose of 10 tons.ha-1 shows the highest plant height of 97.64 cm (Table 1). The high nitrogen and phosphorus content in goat manure fertilizer supports this. Nitrogen and phosphorus are macronutrients that affect roots' growth, morphology, and distribution. High nutrient supply can increase the growth of the above and below-ground parts. The organic matter and carbon content in goat manure can improve the soil's ability to bind water, retain nutrients, maintain microbial activity, retain soil moisture, and reduce soil mass density [35]. This encourages root growth and the ability to absorb nutrients [36]. In addition, upland rice roots are spread over a 10-20 cm soil layer compared to lowland rice in a 0-5 cm soil layer in drought conditions. The nature of upland rice roots is correlated with drought resistance and plant nutrient absorption capacity [37, 38].
Table 1. Height of upland rice plants
|
Water Treatment |
Dosage of Goat Manure Fertilizer |
Average |
|||
|
0 |
10 |
20 |
30 |
||
|
Field capacity |
80.83 |
98.55 |
95.05 |
98.01 |
93.11 |
|
3/4 field capacity |
87.41 |
98.05 |
90.76 |
97.50 |
93.43 |
|
1/2 field capacity |
86.33 |
95.01 |
86.61 |
94.52 |
90.61 |
|
1/4 field capacity |
85.81 |
98.94 |
95.33 |
93.94 |
93.50 |
|
Average |
85.09c |
97.64a |
91.94b |
96.03ab |
- |
Description: Numbers followed by the same letter indicate no significant difference according to the 5% DMRT, and the (-) sign means there is no interaction.
Water treatment did not affect the number of rice leaves (Table 2). Study [39] shows that upland rice is resistant to low and high levels of water stress and shows high leaf growth. Several studies have demonstrated that water stress can inhibit cell division and reduce photosynthetic capacity, reducing leaf production [34, 40]. The dose of goat manure fertilizer affected the number of upland rice leaves, and a dose of 10 tons.ha-1 showed the highest number of leaves, namely 90.07 (Table 2). This is supported by organic matter and organic carbon in cow dung fertilizer, which improve soil structure, increase water holding capacity, and increase microbial activity [41, 42]. These soil conditions will stimulate root proliferation, improving water and nutrient absorption, thereby supporting the physiological process and leaf formation [43, 44]. Applying organic fertilizer can withstand water stress by increasing the availability of organic carbon and soil nutrients, thereby increasing plant growth and yield [45]. In addition, organic goat manure fertilizer contains high nitrogen, which plays a role in photosynthesis, thus affecting leaf structure and nitrogen allocation in leaves [46].
Table 2. Number of upland rice leaves (strands)
|
Water Treatment |
Dosage of Goat Manure Fertilizer |
Average |
|||
|
0 |
10 |
20 |
30 |
||
|
Field capacity |
35.78 |
81.44 |
80.11 |
87.67 |
71.25 |
|
3/4 field capacity |
52.78 |
92.11 |
53.89 |
86.22 |
71.25 |
|
1/2 field capacity |
47.56 |
93.22 |
67 |
86.11 |
73.47 |
|
1/4 field capacity |
49.89 |
93.50 |
84.11 |
96.78 |
81.07 |
|
Average |
46.50c |
90.07a |
71.28b |
89.19a |
- |
Description: Numbers followed by the same letter indicate no significant difference according to the 5% DMRT, and the (-) sign means there is no interaction.
Productive tillers are stems of rice that develop to produce panicles and grain. The number of productive tillers per hill is a component that determines the number of panicles that affect the yield of rice grain (Table 3). Water stress does not affect the number of productive tillers of upland rice. This can be supported by the relatively high water-holding capacity of the soil. Based on research [47] in Malaysia, water limitations caused the number of tillers per clump to decrease, but plant height, leaf dry matter, and panicle length increased. The dose of goat manure fertilizer affects the number of productive tillers of upland rice, with a dose of 10 tons.ha-1 showing the highest number of productive tillers, namely 16.21 tillers. Organic goat manure fertilizer contains high organic carbon and balanced macronutrients that initiate and elongate tiller shoots. Excess organic matter in the goat manure fertilizer treatment at doses of 20 and 30 tons.ha-1 causes the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio to be disturbed, resulting in immobilization, namely, soil microbes immobilizing the available nitrogen. The total nitrogen content in goat manure fertilizer is 2.33% with a role in protein synthesis, cell division, and photosynthetic capacity, which then encourages the development of productive offspring [48, 49]. Phosphorus and potassium contribute to energy transfer and cellular processes essential for offspring development [50]. In addition, organic matter in goat manure increases soil moisture retention and microbial activity, which can alleviate the negative impacts caused by water stress, thereby strengthening the plant's capacity to maintain productive offspring [51].
Table 3. Number of productive tillers of upland rice
|
Water Treatment |
Dosage of Goat Manure Fertilizer |
Average |
|||
|
0 |
10 |
20 |
30 |
||
|
Field capacity |
6.44 |
14.66 |
14.42 |
15.78 |
12.82 |
|
3/4 field capacity |
9.50 |
16.58 |
10.62 |
14.77 |
12.86 |
|
1/2 field capacity |
8.56 |
16.78 |
11.47 |
16.30 |
13.27 |
|
1/4 field capacity |
8.98 |
16.83 |
15.14 |
16.75 |
14.67 |
|
Average |
8.37c |
16.21a |
12.91b |
15.89a |
- |
Description: Numbers followed by the same letter indicate no significant difference according to the 5% DMRT, and the (-) sign means there is no interaction.
Water treatment and goat manure fertilizer dosage did not affect the leaf area of upland rice (Table 4). Rice plants adapt to water stress by reducing leaf area to reduce transpiration and maintain water use efficiency [52, 53]. However, the study's results showed that the leaf area of upland rice did not decrease with water deficit treatment. These results indicate that upland rice is tolerant to drought due to the expression of the OsWRKY97 gene by regulating osmolyte accumulation and maintaining water potential in leaf tissue [54, 55]. This causes plants to maintain cell turgor and relative water content in the leaves, thereby maintaining leaf area [54]. The root oxygen consumption and transport rate are strongly positively correlated with leaf area [56]. Water deficit limits root growth but has little impact on aboveground growth in rice plants because a balanced leaf xylem system maintains leaf water potential [57].
Table 4. Leaf area of upland rice
|
Water Treatment |
Dosage of Goat Manure Fertilizer |
Average |
|||
|
0 |
10 |
20 |
30 |
||
|
Field capacity |
680.69 |
1165.33 |
1529.35 |
1798.70 |
1293.52 |
|
3/4 field capacity |
1322.61 |
1533.34 |
1405.32 |
1577.16 |
1459.61 |
|
1/2 field capacity |
1291.70 |
1700.47 |
1422.75 |
1953.01 |
1591.98 |
|
1/4 field capacity |
1245.91 |
1770.48 |
1932.26 |
1712.51 |
1665.29 |
3.2 Yield
Water treatment did not affect the biomass of upland rice plants. Water stress disrupts rice's growth and reproductive stages, resulting in decreased rice grain yields [58]. However, upland rice can adapt to drought conditions because upland rice roots are deeper and thicker, and xylem vessels are larger than lowland rice. The root system can access water from deeper soil layers, which will help plants maintain high plant water status [59]. Water is the primary electron donor during photolysis to produce ATP and NADPH in carbon assimilation. Water deficiency can cause stomatal closure, reduce CO₂ absorption, and interfere with photosynthetic efficiency. However, upland rice shows a relatively stable photosynthetic rate in mild to moderate water deficits due to strong mesophyll conductance and maintains the electron transport process [60, 61]. This buffering capacity is due to physiological adaptations that include rapid modulation of stomatal conductance and preservation of chloroplast integrity, which ensures the supply of photochemical energy for biomass synthesis under water stress. The results showed that the dose of goat manure fertilizer affected the biomass of upland rice plants, and a dose of 30 tons.ha-1 showed the highest biomass of 34.36g (Table 5). Goat manure at optimal doses resulted in a significant increase in dry biomass compared to the control under water-limited conditions [62]. This is because the organic matter content in goat manure fertilizer can increase the rate of soil respiration, soil microbial biomass carbon, total carbon, dissolved organic carbon, soil available phosphorus, soil organic phosphorus, microbial biomass phosphorus, and shoot phosphorus concentration [63]. Organic fertilizers can increase phosphorus absorption by rice plants and eliminate the impact of drought, thereby encouraging rice plant biomass production [64]. The water use efficiency in the field capacity treatment was 8.35 kg.l-1. Increasing water stress resulted in increased water use efficiency. The 3/4, 1/2, and 1/4 field capacity treatments showed water stress efficiencies of 12.32, 18.88, and 41.78 kg.l-1. Water deficit reduces relative leaf development and cell division rate, leading to low rice yield [65, 66]. Applying organic fertilizers can improve water holding capacity, soil porosity, and aggregate formation, thereby retaining moisture under drought conditions [67]. Adequate moisture facilitates evaporative cooling, thereby stabilizing leaf temperature, which is closely related to plant health, nutrient uptake, and photosynthetic efficiency [68, 69].
The study showed that water treatment did not affect the number of panicles per hill, and the number of panicles increased in high water stress treatments. This may be because upland rice is tolerant to drought, which is controlled by the Enhanced Response to ABAI (ERAI) gene encoding the β-subunit farnesyltransferase enzyme, which increases the sensitivity of guard cells to abscisic acid (ABA). Stomatal opening and closing are controlled by the phytohormone ABA, which reduces water loss during transpiration [52]. Adaptation of upland rice to drought stress is based on leaf curling, leaf drying, harvest yields, and percentage of plant growth [70]. Loss of cell turgor pressure and stomatal closure in dry conditions causes the carbon assimilation rate to decrease, so plant biomass decreases [71]. In addition, the WRKY gene controls drought resistance in rice plants [72]. The number of panicles per hill is determined by a specific gene whose activity is influenced by the environment.
Table 5. Biomass of upland rice plants
|
Water Treatment |
Dosage of Goat Manure Fertilizer |
Average |
|||
|
0 |
10 |
20 |
30 |
||
|
Field capacity |
13.65 |
31.49 |
23.36 |
31.71 |
25.05 |
|
3/4 field capacity |
18.32 |
32.71 |
21.69 |
38.18 |
27.72 |
|
1/2 field capacity |
21.55 |
34.93 |
25.78 |
31.01 |
28.32 |
|
1/4 field capacity |
17.83 |
32.17 |
33.80 |
36.54 |
30.08 |
|
Average |
17.84c |
32.82ab |
26.16b |
34.36a |
- |
Description: Numbers followed by the same letter indicate no significant difference according to the 5% DMRT, and the (-) sign means there is no interaction.
The dose of goat manure fertilizer affects the number of panicles per hill, and the dose of 30 tons.ha-1 shows the highest number of panicles per hill, which is 12.15 panicles (Table 6). The high nitrogen and phosphorus content in goat manure fertilizer supports this. Nitrogen deficiency causes low tillering and panicle initiation stages and reduced grain yields [73]. The absorption of nitrogen and phosphorus by upland rice plants is correlated with the number of panicles and rice yields [74]. Applying fertilizers with high nitrogen and phosphorus content can increase the accumulation of dry matter and its translocation to the reproductive organs, thereby supporting panicle formation [75]. Nitrogen, the main component of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids, stimulates enzyme biosynthesis, encouraging vegetative and tillering growth that supports panicle formation [76]. Meanwhile, phosphorus plays a role in synthesizing adenosine triphosphate, which is needed during the reproductive development phase. Phosphorus supports root development and nutrient absorption, thus facilitating the transport of photosynthates to the panicle [77]. Efficient assimilative translocation is essential for panicle differentiation and filling. However, excessive nitrogen application causes a preferential allocation of assimilates to vegetative organs at the expense of grain filling [78].
Table 6. Number of panicles per hill of upland rice
|
Water Treatment |
Dosage of Goat Manure Fertilizer |
Average |
|||
|
0 |
10 |
20 |
30 |
||
|
Field capacity |
6.11 |
12 |
11 |
10.11 |
9.80 |
|
3/4 field capacity |
7.77 |
12.22 |
9 |
14.11 |
10.77 |
|
1/2 field capacity |
9.78 |
12.11 |
10 |
11 |
10.72 |
|
1/4 field capacity |
8.22 |
10.78 |
14.22 |
13.78 |
11.75 |
|
Average |
7.97b |
11.77a |
11.05a |
12.15a |
- |
Description: Numbers followed by the same letter indicate no significant difference according to the 5% DMRT, and the (-) sign means there is no interaction.
The combination of water treatment with goat manure fertilizer doses affected the number of grains per panicle (Table 7). The combination of field capacity water treatment with a fertilizer dose of 10 tons.ha-1 showed the highest number of grains per panicle, 1489.33. It was not significantly different from the treatment of 3/4 field capacity with 20 and 30 tons.ha-1 doses. The results showed that organic fertilizer treatment could boost rice yields under water stress conditions. This is supported by the content of organic matter and carbon in goat manure fertilizer, thereby increasing water retention capacity and improving soil structure, which is important under water-limited conditions [79]. Goat manure fertilizer increases nutrient absorption in rice on dry land [80, 81]. The nutrient content of goat manure fertilizer, supported by water availability, encourages increased photosynthesis [82]. Most of the photosynthesis results are used to fill grain. The increased photosynthate rate will fulfill the assimilates from photosynthesis during grain filling [83].
Table 7. Number of grains per panicle of upland rice
|
Water Treatment |
Dosage of Goat Manure Fertilizer |
Average |
|||
|
0 |
10 |
20 |
30 |
||
|
Field capacity |
458.67g |
1489.33a |
983.33bcdef |
990.67bcdef |
980.50 |
|
3/4 field capacity |
799.67defg |
1201.00abcd |
566.50fg |
1316.16abc |
970.83 |
|
1/2 field capacity |
614.83efg |
1346.83ab |
1033.50bcde |
898.00cdef |
973.29 |
|
1/4 field capacity |
755.33efg |
1030.33bcde |
1245.33abc |
1214.83abcd |
1061.46 |
|
Average |
657.13c |
1266.88a |
957.17b |
1104.91ab |
+ |
Description: Numbers followed by the same letter in the same row and column indicate no significant difference according to the 5% DMRT, and the (+) sign means there is an interaction.
Table 8. Weight dry grain harvest
|
Water Treatment |
Dosage of Goat Manure Fertilizer |
Average |
|||
|
0 |
10 |
20 |
30 |
||
|
Field capacity |
8.60 |
20.16 |
18.67 |
17.65 |
16.27 |
|
3/4 field capacity |
13.51 |
20.13 |
14.67 |
22.09 |
17.60 |
|
1/2 field capacity |
12.76 |
22.71 |
15.82 |
13.68 |
16.24 |
|
1/4 field capacity |
12.76 |
16.10 |
19.46 |
16.67 |
16.24 |
|
Average |
11.90 |
19.77 |
17.15 |
17.53 |
- |
Description: Numbers followed by the same letter indicate no significant difference according to the 5% DMRT, and the (-) sign means there is no interaction.
The weight of grain per hill is influenced by the number of productive tillers, panicle length, number of grains per panicle, percentage of whole grain, and weight of 1000 seeds [84]. The results showed that water treatment and goat manure fertilizer doses did not affect the weight of dry grain harvested in upland rice (Table 8). This can be caused by upland rice saving 70-80% of water compared to lowland rice, so water limitations do not affect upland rice yield. Based on research in Thailand, water stress treatment affects grain yield, namely 4.03 tons.ha-1 in the Alternate Wetting and Drying treatment and 4.13 tons.ha-1 in the flooding treatment [85]. Based on other Southeast Asian research, mineral fertilizer combined with water stress, namely alternating wetting and drying, causes a 14% decrease in yield, lower than the continuous flooding treatment. Upland rice can increase the formation of lateral roots in limited water conditions, so a higher root-fertilizer ratio encourages the growth and yield of upland rice. In addition, upland rice has xylem vessels with a higher number, diameter, and area than lowland rice, affecting water conductance and maintaining leaf temperature. Synergistic interactions between soil moisture and organic fertilizers occur during rice growth to increase rice yields and the efficiency of water and nitrogen [86, 87].
Water treatment did not affect upland rice growth and yield. However, the dosage of goat manure fertilizer affected plant growth, specifically plant height, number of leaves, productive tillers, yield, plant biomass, panicles per hill, and grains per panicle. A dose of 10 tons.ha-1 cow manure stimulated plant height, number of leaves, and productive tillers, while a dose of 30 tons.ha-1 optimally increased biomass and number of panicles. The combination of 100% field capacity water treatment with 10 tons of goat manure/ha produced the highest number of grains per panicle. It was similar to the treatment of 3/4 field capacity water and 20–30 tons.ha-1 dose. Controlled water stress and the use of goat manure are low-carbon adaptive strategies that improve water efficiency, soil fertility, and the resilience of rice agroecosystems to climate change.
Thanks to Sebelas Maret University for providing Non-APBN funding for research through the Research Group Research Program with contract No.: 371/UN27.22/PT.01.03/2025.
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