Observations on Silage Making of Landscape Conocarpus Browse Residues as Feed Ingredient in Kuwait

Observations on Silage Making of Landscape Conocarpus Browse Residues as Feed Ingredient in Kuwait

Z. Baroon M.A. Razzaque 

Biotechnology Department, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait

Aridland Agriculture and Greenery Department, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait

Page: 
362–379
|
DOI: 
https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V8-N3-362–379
Received: 
N/A
| |
Accepted: 
N/A
| | Citation

OPEN ACCESS

Abstract: 

There is a chronic shortage of local feeds in Kuwait, and almost 95% of total feeds are expensively imported. Therefore, efforts were focused to explore the possible utilization of locally available landscape browse resi- dues as feed ingredients. Landscape greenery residues have increased with locally implemented greenery programs. Conocarpus lancifolius is an ornamentally predominant tree among landscape plantations, daily resulting in over 120 t of residual by-products without being utilized. Ensiling, was considered as a techni- cally sound strategy for proper utilization of Conocarpus residues as an upgraded feed ingredient substituting imported conventional feeds. A total premix of 24 t of silage was prepared in pilot-scale trench silos for 30 days. Nutritional value of Conocarpus silage was evaluated, where mean values of 4.2 ± 0.12, 4.95 ± 0.32%, and 7.3 × 108 ± 0.12 colony forming units (CFU)/g of silage for pH, lactic acid, and lactic acid bacteria were achieved, respectively. Palatability and feeding trials were performed for four months on 60 growing heifers of Holstein–Friesian breed grouped in six dietary treatments. Formulated feed rations contained 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60% silage partially replacing conventional roughages (alfalfa, hay straw). Control dietary treatment contained 100% conventional feed ingredients. Daily dry matter intake and feed conversion ratio were significantly (p > 0.05) high. Results showed that grossly 40% of the conventional roughages could be replaced by the ensiled Conocarpus greenery browse residues. Cost/benefit analysis was carried out on pilot-scale production of Cono- carpus silage, confirming a feasible, low cost, and competitive product where the cost was calculated to be Kuwaiti Dinar 33 (US$ 120)/t silage. Break-even point could be achieved after 30 months with production of 3,159 t silage. Potentially, low-cost Conocarpus silage could partially substitute expensive imported rough- ages, thereby alleviating feed shortage and, currently, promoting livestock production.

Keywords: 

competitive, ensiling, feasible, imported, nutritional, palatability, shortage

  References

[1] Osman, A.E., Makawi, M. & Ahmed, A., Potential of the indigenous desert grasses of the Ara- bian Peninsula for forage production in a water-scarce region. Grass and Forage Science, 63, pp. 495–503, 2008. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.2008.00656.x

[2] Al-Senafy, M. & Abraham, J., Vulnerability of groundwater resources from agricultural activi- ties in southern Kuwait. Agricultural Water Management, 64, pp. 1–15, 2004. doi: http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3774(03)00195-1

[3] Peacock, J.M., Ferguson, M.E., Alhadrami, G.A., Mccann, I.R., Al Hajoja, A., Saleh, A. & Karnik, R., Conservation through utilization: a case study of the indigenous forage grasses of the Arabian Peninsula. Journal of Arid Environments, 54, pp. 15–28, 2003. doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.1006/jare.2001.0895

[4] Ghazanfar, S.A. & Fisher, M., Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula, Kluwer Academic Publish- ers: London, UK, 1998. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3637-4

[5] Taha, F.K., Razzaque, M.A., Suleiman, A.R & Nassef, A.A., Rangelands: A resource under siege. Proceedings of the Second International Rangeland Congress, eds. P.J. Joss, P.W. Lynch, O.B. Williams, 1986.

[6] Razzaque, M.A. & AL-Nasser, A., Status of animal production sub-sector and animal origin foods in Kuwait and recommended measures for improvement. Technical Report. Kuwait Insti- tute for Scientific Research, Report No. KISR 6722, 2003.

[7] Business Analytic Center (BAC), Animal Feed Market in Kuwait: Business Report 2011, Kuwait, 2011.

[8] Ministry of Planning, Agriculture and livestock. In: Annual Statistical Abstract, Chapter VII. 39, pp. 127–138 Kuwait, 2002.

[9] Ministry of Planning, Agriculture and livestock. In: Annual Statistical Abstract. Chapter VII. 40, pp. 143–154 Kuwait, 2004.

[10] Gabler, M.T., Tozer, P.R. & Heinrichs, A.J., Development of a cost analysis spreadsheet for calcu- lating the costs to raise a replacement dairy heifer. Journal of Dairy Science, 83, pp. 1104–1109, 2000. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(00)74975-7

[11] Zaroug, M., Importance of fodder trees and shrubs for the productivity of rangelands and agri- culture systems in the near east. FOA Corporate Document Repository, Food and Agriculture Organization, (FAO): Italy, 1985.

[12] Bhat, N.R., Suleiman, M.K., Al-Menaie, H., Al-Ali, E.H., AL-Mulla, L., Christopher, A., Le- kha, V.S., Ali, S.I & George, P., Polyacrylamide polymer and salinity effects on water require- ment of conocarpus lancifolius and selected properties of sandy loam soil, European Journal of Scientific Research, 25(4), pp. 549–558, 2009.

[13] Baroon, Z., Razzaque, M.A. & Al-Anjari, H., Evaluation of greenery residues for animal feed- ing: Chemical and microbiological studies on plants and silages. Kuwait Institute for Scien- tific Research. Technical Report No. KISR 6163, Kuwait, 2001.

[14] Razzaque, M.A., Scharp, D., Al-Mutawa, T., Al-Muhanna, M., Abbas, S., Shalabi, A., El- Sawy, E., Al- Awadhi, A., Mulla, F., & El-Sanousi, A., Field and laboratory investigation of calf mortality in Kuwait and its economic impact on dairy production. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Report No. KISR6004, Kuwait, 2001.

[15] Suleiman, M.K., Bhat, N.R., Abdal, M.S. & Bellen, R.R., Testing newly introduced ornamental plants to the arid climate of Kuwait. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 51, pp. 469–479, 2005. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03650340500094807

[16] ICBA, Strategic Plan 2008–2012. International Center for Biosaline Agriculture, UAE, 2009.

[17] Al-Surrayai, T. & Baroon, Z., Investigation of the chemical and microbiological quality of fresh plants, silages and calves meat. Technical report KISR 7764, Kuwait Institute for Scien- tific Research, Kuwait, 2005.

[18] Wensvoort, J., Browse silage in the UAE. Wildlife Middle East News, 3(1). ISSN 1990-8237. UAE, 2008.

[19] Baroon, Z., Razzaque, M.A., Bedair, M. & Abbas, S., Greenery residues as livestock feed. Phase II: Pilot-scale production of silage and animal response studies. Progress report KISR 7892, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait, 2003.

[20] Baroon, Z., Razzaque, M.A. & Mufleh, A., Ensilage of greenery residues as animal feed. Phase I: Pilot-scale production and palatability studies. Final report KISR 7194, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait, 2004.

[21] Baroon, Z., Abbas, S., Razzaque, M.A. & Bedair, M., Greenery residues as livestock feed. Phase II: Pilot-scale production of silage and animal response studies. Progress report KISR 8177, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait, 2006.

[22] Marley, C.L., Fychan, R., Fraser, M.D., Sanderson, R. & Jones, R., Effects of feeding different ensiled forages on the productivity and nutrient-use efficiency of finishing lambs. Grass and Forage Science, 62, pp. 1–12, 2007. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.2007.00556.x

[23] Knickey, M., Possibilities to Improve Silage Conservation, Effects of Crop, Ensiling Technol- ogy and Additives, Doctoral thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences: Uppsala. ISSN 1652-6880, 2005.

[24] Asbell, G., Kipnis, T., Titterton, M., Hen, Y.,  Azrieli A. & Weinberg,  Z.G., Examination of  a technology for silage making in plastic bags. Animal Feed  Science and Technology,  91,  pp. 213–222, 2001. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0377-8401(01)00239-5

[25] El Shaer, H.M., Halophytes and salt-tolerant plants as potential forage for ruminants in the near East region. Small Ruminant Research, 91, pp. 3–12, 2010. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.smallrumres.2010.01.010

[26] Woolford, M., & Pahlow, G., The silage fermentation. In: Microbiology of Fermented Foods, ed. B.J.B Wood, Blackie Academic and Professional: London pp. 73–102, 1998. doi: http://dx. doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0309-1_3

[27] Kung, L. & Muck, R.E., Animal response to silage additives, Proceedings of Silage: Field Feedbunk, North American Conference, the Silage: Field to Feedbunk North American Confer- ence, Pennsylvania, USA, pp. 200–210, 1997.

[28] McDonald, P., Henderson, A.R. & Heron, S.J.E., The Biochemistry of Silage 2nd edition. Chal- combe Publications, Marlow: United Kingdom, 340, 1991.

[29] Woodlford, M.K., The chemistry of silage. In: The Silage Fermentation, ed. M.K. Woodford, Marcel Dekker: New York, pp. 71–132, 1984.

[30] Whittenbury, R., Microbiology of grass silage. Process Biochemistry, pp. 27–31, 1968.

[31] Nkosi, B.D., Meeske, R., Palic, D. & Langa T., Laboratory evaluation of an inoculant for ensiling whole crop maize in South Africa. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 150, pp. 144–150, 2009. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2008.07.008

[32] Sucu, E. & Filya, I., Effects of homofermentative lactic acid bacterial inoculants on the fer- mentation and aerobic stability characteristics of low dry matter corn silages. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 30, pp. 83–88, 2006.

[33] Driehuis, F., Oude Elferink, S.W.J.H. & van Wikselaar, P.G., Fermentation characteristics and aerobic stability of grass silage inoculated with Lactobacillus buchneri, with or without homo- fermentative lactic acid bacteria. Grass and Forage Science, 56, pp. 330–343, 2001. doi: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2494.2001.00282.x

[34] Meeske, R. & Basson, H.M., The effect of a lactic acid bacterial inoculant on maize silage. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 70, pp. 239–247, 1998. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S0377-8401(97)00066-7

[35] Muck, R.E., Silage inoculation: inoculation of silage and its effects on silage quality. US Dairy Forage Centre, Informational Conference with Dairy and Forage Industries US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, WI, USA, pp. 43–51, 1996.

[36] Wittenberg, K.M., Ingalls, J.R. & Devlin. T.J., The effect of lactobacteria inoculation on corn silage preservation and feeding value for growing beef animals and lamb. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 63, pp. 917–924, 1983. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/cjas83-106

[37] Aridland Agriculture Department (AAD), Master plan for development of Kuwait’s agricul- tural sector (1995-2015), Appendix III. Current and projected animal and crop production, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Report No. KISR 4615, Kuwait, 1995.

[38] Ilian, M.A., Razzaque, M.A. & Salman, A.J., Unconventional feeds for sheep: Effects on performance and meat quality and composition. Biological Wastes, 24(2), pp. 115–125, 1988. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0269-7483(88)90054-7

[39] Razzaque, M.A., Mohammed, S.A., Al-Mutawa, T. & Bedair, M., Growth, reproduction and milk yield of Holstein Friesian heifers born and adapted in Kuwait, Pakistan Journal of Nutri- tion, 8(8), pp. 1159–1163, 2009.

[40] Bahman, A.M., Rook, J.A. & Topps, J.H., The performance of dairy cows offered drinking water of low or high salinity in a hot arid climate. Animal Production, 57(1), pp. 23–28, 1993. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003356100006565

[41] Armstrong, D.V., Malik, R., Kraynick, R., Razzque, M.A. & Abdulla, T., Assessment of Kuwait’s dairy sector The dairy cattle industry: A review of the production constraints and proposals for resolving some of them, In: Master Plan for Development of Kuwait’s Agricultural Sector (1995-2015). Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Report No. KISR4615, Kuwait, 1995.

[42] AOAC, Official Methods of Analysis 15th Edition. Association of Official Analytical Chemists: Arlington, Virginia, USA, 2002.

[43] Dewar, W.A. & McDonald, P., Determination of dry matter in silage by distillation with tolu- ene, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 12(11), pp. 790–795, 1961. doi: http://dx. doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740121112

[44] Goering, H.K. & Van Soest, P.J., Forage fiber analysis, In: Agricultural Handbook No. 379, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, pp. 197–218, 1970.

[45] McDonald, P. & Henderson, A.R., Determination of water-soluble carbohydrates in grass. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 15(6), pp. 395–398, 1964. doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.1002/jsfa.2740150609

[46] Ohmomo, S., Tanaka, O. & Kitamoto, H., Analysis of organic acids in silage by high- performance liquid chromatography. Bulletin of the National Grassland Research Institute, 48, pp. 51–56, 1993.

[47] National Research Council (NRC), Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle, 7th edn., National Academic of Sciences: Washington DC, USA, 2001.

[48] Zanton, G.I. & Heinrichs. A.J., Analysis of nitrogen utilization and excretion in growing dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science, 91, pp. 1519–1533, 2008. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds. 2007-0624

[49] Duncan, D.B., Multiple range and multiple F test. Biometrics, 11, pp. 1–42, 1955. doi: http:// dx.doi.org/10.2307/3001478

[50] Payne, R.L., Lavergne, T.K. & Southern, L.L., A comparison of two sources of phytase in liq- uid and dry forms in broilers. Poultry Science, 84, pp. 265–272, 2005.

[51] Ruppel, K.A., Pitt, R.E., Chase, L.E. & Galton, D.M., Bunker silo management and its rela- tionship to forage preservation on dairy farms. Journal of Dairy Science, 78, pp. 141–153, 1995. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(95)76624-3

[52] Muck, R.E., Savoie, P. & Holmes, B.J., Factors influencing density in bunker silos. U.S. Dairy Forage Research Center 2002 Research Report, pp. 11–13, 2003.

[53] Woolford, M. & Pahlow, G., The silage fermentation. In: Microbiology of Fermented Foods, ed B.J.B. Wood, Blackie Academic and Professional: London, pp. 73–102, 1998. doi: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0309-1_3

[54] McDonald, P., Henderson, A.R. & Heron, J.E., The Biochemistry of Silage, 2nd Edition, Mar- low, United Kingdom: Chalcombe Publications, 340, 1991.

[55] Toruk, F. & Koc, F., Effect on silage quality and aerobic stability of different compaction levels in sunflower silage. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 15(3), pp. 269–275, 2009.

[56] Muck, R.E., Factors influencing silage quality and their implications for management. Journal of Dairy Science, 7, pp. 2992–3002, 1998.

[57] Peterson, K., Ensiling of forages: Factors affecting silage fermentation and quality. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Management: Uppala, p. 46, 1988.

[58] Jaster, E.H. & Moore, K.J., Quality and fermentation of enzyme-treated alfalfa silages at three moisture concentrations. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 31, pp. 261–268, 1990. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(90)90130-Z

[59] Garcia, A.D., Olson, W.G., Otterby, D.E., Linn, J.G. & Hansen, W.P., Effects of tempera- ture, moisture, and aeration on fermentation of alfalfa silage. Journal of Dairy Science, 72, pp. 93–103, 1989. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(89)79084-6

[60] Fouda, S.M.I., Nutritional evaluation of silage of some agricultural by-products. Thesis, Fac- ulty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar University, 2005.

[61] Shehata, S.M., El Shimi, S.A., Elkattan, M.H., Ali, B.E., El-Housseini, M., Integrated waste management for rural development in Egypt. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, 39, pp. 341–349, 2004. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/ESE-120027526

[62] Huhtanen, P., Rinne, M. & Nousiainen, J., Evaluation of the factors affecting silage intake of dairy cows: a revision of the relative silage dry-matter intake index. Animal, 1, pp.758–770, 2007. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S175173110773673X

[63] Kung, L., Jr., & Shaver, R.D., Interpretation and use of silage fermentation analysis reports. Focus on Forage, 3, pp. 1–5, 2001.

[64] Jalc1, D., Laukova, A., Simonova, M., Varadyova, Z. & Homolka, P., The use of bacterial in- oculants for grass silage: their effects on nutrient composition and fermentation parameters in grass silages. Czech Journal of Animal Science, 54, pp. 84–91, 2009.

[65] Selmer-Olsen, I., Henderson, A.R., Robertson, A.R. & McGinn, A., Cell wall degrading enzymes for grass silage. 1. The fermentation of enzyme treated silage in laboratory silos. Grass and Forage Science, 48, pp. 45–54, 1993. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1993.tb01835.x

[66] Mertens, D.R., Impact of NDF content and digestibility on dairy cow performance. Proceed- ings of 27th Annual Western Canadian Dairy Seminar. Red Deer: Alberta, Canada, 2009.

[67] Mertens, D.R., Regulation of forage intake. In: Forage Quality, Evaluation, and Utilization, ed. G.C. Fahey Jr. American Society of Agronomy: Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 450–493, 1994.

[68] Zimmerman, C., Silage Fermentation Analysis, Blue Seal Feeds Inc., 2002.

[69] Kung, L., Jr., Robinson, J.R., Ranjit, N.K., Chen, J.H. & Golt, C.M., Microbial populations, fermentation end products, and aerobic stability of corn silage treated with ammonia or a pro- pionic acid-based preservative. Journal of Dairy Science, 83, pp. 1479–1486, 2000. doi: http:// dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(00)75020-X

[70] Filya, I. & Sucu, E., The effects of lactic acid bacteria on the fermentation, aerobic stability and nutritive value of maize silage. Grass and Forage Science, 65(4), pp. 446–455, 2010. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.2010.00763.x

[71] Piltz, J.W. & Kaiser, A.G., Principles of silage preservation. In: Top Fodder Successful Silage, eds. A.G Kaiser., J.W Piltz., H.M Burns. & N.W Griffiths, Dairy Australia and New South Wales Department of Primary Industries: Orange, NSW, Australia, pp 25–56, 2004.

[72] Kung, L., Jr. & M. R. Stokes, M.R., Analyzing silages for fermentation end products. Available at http://ag.udel.edu/departments/anfs/faculty/kung/articles/analyzing_silages_for_fermentati. htm., 2001.

[73] Kaldmae, H., Kart, O., Olt, A., Selge, A. & Keres, I., Inoculant effects on red clover silage: fermentation products and nutritive value. Agronomy Research, 7(2), pp. 793–800, 2009.

[74] Filya, I., Muck, R.E. & Contreras-Govea, F.E., Inoculant effects on alfalfa silage: fermentation products and nutritive value. Journal of Dairy Science, 90, pp. 5108–5114, 2007. doi: http:// dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.2006-877

[75] Ward, R.T., Fermentation analysis: use and interpretation. Proceedings of Tri-State Dairy Nu- trition Conference, Fort: Indiana, USA, pp. 117–136, 2000.

[76] Rees, T.J., Review of the Literature-the Development of a Novel Antifungal Silage Inoculant, Doctoral Research Thesis, 1997.

[77] Huhtanen, P., Rinne, M. & Nousiainen, J., Evaluation of the factors affecting silage intake of dairy cows: a revision of the relative silage dry-matter intake index. Animal, 1, pp. 758–770, 2007. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S175173110773673X

[78] Oetzel, G.R., Herd-Level Ketosis-Diagnosis and Risk Factors, Preconference Seminar 7C: Dairy Herd Problem Investigation Strategies: Transition Cow Troubleshooting, American As- sociation of Bovine Practitions 40th Annual Conference, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 2007.

[79] Tveit, B., Lingaas, F., Svendsen, M. & Sjaastad, Ø.V., Etiology of acetonemia in norwegian cattle. 1. effect of ketogenic silage, season, energy level, and genetic factors. Journal of Dairy Science, 75, pp. 2421–2432, 1992. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(92)78003-5

[80] Lima, R., Lourenço, M., Díaz, R.F., Castro, A. & Fievez, V., Effect of combined ensiling of sorghum and soybean with or without molasses and lactobacilli on silage quality and in vitro rumen fermentation. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 155, pp. 122–131, 2010. doi: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2009.10.008

[81] Iqbal, S., Bhati, S.A., Mahr-un-Nisa & Sarwar, M., Influence of varying levels of organic green culture and enzose on silage characteristics of mott grass and its digestion kinetics in Nili-Ravi buffalo bulls. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 6, pp. 1011–1014, 2005.

[82] Ben-Ghedalia, D., Kabala, A., Miron, J. & Yosef, E., Silage fermentation and in vitro degrada- tion of monosaccharide constituents of wheat harvested at two stages of maturity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 43, pp. 2428–2431, 1995. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ jf00057a021

[83] Haigh, P.M. & Parker, J.W.G., Effect of silage additives and wilting on silage fermentation, digestibility and intake, and on live weight change of young cattle. Grass and Forage Science, 40, pp. 429–436, 1985. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1985.tb01774.x

[84] Nkosi, B.D., Meeske, R., Palic, D. & Langa T., Laboratory evaluation of an inoculant for ensil- ing whole crop maize in South Africa. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 150, pp. 144–150, 2009. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2008.07.008

[85] Piltz, J.W. & Kaiser, A.G., The use of molasses to improve the fermentation of low dry matter kikuyu grass silages. In: "Silage Making in the Tropics with Particular Emphasis on Small- holders", ed L Mannetje, FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 161, pp. 165–166, 2000.

[86] Weinberg, Z.G., Khanal, P., Yildiz, C., Chen, Y. & Arieli. A., Effects of stage of maturity at harvest, wilting and LAB inoculant on aerobic stability of wheat silages. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 158, pp. 29–35, 2010. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2010.03.006

[87] Kung, L., Jr. & Ranjit,  N.K.,  The  effect  of  Lactobacillus  buchneri  and  other  additives on the fermentation and aerobic stability of barley silage. Journal of Dairy Science, 84,      pp. 1149–1155, 2001. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(01)74575-4

[88] Pancholy, R. & Mall, P.C., Requirement of bacterial inoculant and urea addition for ensiling of desert grass. Lasiurus scindicus. Journal of Arid Environments, 27, pp. 387–391, 1994. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jare.1994.1073

[89] Schmidt, R.J. & Kung, L., The effects of Lactobacillus buchneri with or without a homolactic bacterium on the fermentation and aerobic stability of corn silages made at different locations. Journal of Dairy Science, 93, pp. 1616–1624, 2010. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009- 2555

[90] Kung, L., Schmidt, R.J., Ebling, T.E. & Hu, W., The effect of Lactobacillus buchneri 40788 on the fermentation and aerobic stability of ground and whole high-moisture corn. Journal of Dairy Science, 90(5), pp. 2309–2314, 2007. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.2006-713

[91] Nishino, N., Wada, H., Yoshida, M. & Shiota. H., Microbial counts, fermentation products, and aerobic stability of whole crop corn and a total mixed ration ensiled with and without inoculation of Lactobacillus casei or Lactobacillus buchneri. Journal of Dairy Science, 9, pp. 2563–2570, 2004. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(04)73381-0

[92] Ranjit, N.K. & Kung, L., The effect of Lactobacillus buchneri, Lactobacillus plantarum, or a chemical preservative on the fermentation and aerobic stability of corn silage. Journal of Dairy Science, 83(3), pp. 526–268, 2000. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(00)74912-5

[93] Widstrom, N.W., The  aflatoxin  problem  with  corn  grain.  Advances  in  Agronomy,  56,  pp. 219–280, 1996. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60183-2

[94] Ingalls, J.R., Influence of deoxynivalenol on feed consumption by dairy cows. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 60, pp. 297–300, 1996. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(96) 00984-4

[95] Charmley, E., Trenholm, H.L., Thompson, B.K., Vudathala, D., Nicholson J.W.G. & Charmley, L.L., Influence of level of deoxynivalenol in the diet of dairy cows on feed intake, milk produc- tion and its composition. Journal of Dairy Science, 76, pp. 3580–3587, 1993. doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(93)77697-3

[96] Shurtleff, M.C., Compendium of corn diseases, 2nd edn, pp. 51–60, American Phytological Society: Minnesota, USA, APS Press, pp. 43–63, 1980.

[97] Ly, N.T.H., The use of ensiled cassava leaves for feeding pigs on-farm in central Vietnam. Workshop-seminar "Forages for Pigs and Rabbits" MEKARN-CelAgrid, Phnom Penh, Cam- bodia, 2006.

[98] Huhtanen, P., Rinne, M. & Nousiainen, J., Evaluation of concentrate factors affecting silage in- take of dairy cows: a development of the relative total diet intake index. Animal, 2, pp. 942–953, 2008. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1751731108001924

[99] Huhtanen, P., Rinne, M. & Nousiainen, J., Evaluation of the factors affecting silage intake of dairy cows: a revision of the relative silage dry-matter intake index, Animal, 1, pp. 758–770, 2007. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S175173110773673X

[100] Dhiman, T.R., & Satter, L.D., Yield responses of dairy cows fed different proportions of alfalfa silage and corn silage. Journal of Dairy Science, 80, pp. 2069–2082, 1997. doi: http:// dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(97)76152-6

[101] Kaiser, A.G., Alternative Finishing Strategies for the Production of High Quality Beef, Medi- cal Research Council (MRC) Report for DAN.040, 1993.

[102] Sauer, F.D., Kramer, J.K.G. & Cantwell, W.J., Antiketogenic effects of monensin in early lactation. Journal of Dairy Science, 72, pp. 436–442, 1989. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/ jds.S0022-0302(89)79125-6

[103] Cherney, D.J.R., Cherney, J.H. & Chase, L.E., Influence of lucerne/fescue silage mixtures on milk production of early-lactation Holstein cows. Journal of Animal Feed and Science, 11, pp. 555–564, 2002.

[104] Rodrigues, M.A.M., Fonseca, A.J.M., Sequeira, C.A. & Dias-da-Silva, A.A., Digestion ki- netic parameters from an in vitro gas production method as predictors of voluntary intake of forage by mature ewes. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 95, pp. 133–142, 2002. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0377-8401(01)00326-1

[105] Barrière, Y., Dias Gonçalves, G., Emile, J.C. & Lefèvre, B., Higher Intake of DK265 Corn Silage by Dairy Cattle. Journal of Dairy Science, 87, pp. 1439–1445, 2004. doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(04)73294-4

[106] Pereira, D.H., Pereira, O.G., Silva, B.C., Leão, M.I., Valadares Filho, S.C. & Garcia, R., Nutrient intake and digestibility and ruminal parameters in beef cattle fed diets containing Brachiaria brizantha silage and concentrate at different ratios. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 140, pp. 52–66, 2008. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2007.02.012

[107] Chizzotti, F.H.M., Pereira, O.G., Valadares Filho, S.C., Chizzotti, M.L., Leão, M.I., Pereira, D.H. & Tedeschi, L.O., Intake, digestibility, ruminal parameters, and microbial protein syn- thesis in crossbred steers fed diets based on Brachiaria grass silage and sorghum silage. Bra- zilian Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science (Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia), 61, pp. 1328–1338, 2009.

[108] Rymer, C., The measurement of forage digestibility in vivo, In: Forage Evaluation in Rumi- nant Nutrition eds. D.I. Givens., E. Owen., R.F.E. Axford.. & H.M.Omed, CABI Publishing, CAB International: Oxon, UK, pp. 113–134, 2000.

[109] Arelovich, H.M., Abney, C.S., Vizcarra, J.A. & Galyean, M.L., Effects of dietary neutral detergent fiber on intakes of dry matter and net energy by dairy and beef cattle: Analysis of published data. The Professional Animal Scientist, 24, pp. 375–383, 2008.

[110] Galyean, M.L. & P. J. Defoor., Effects of roughage source and level on intake by feedlot cattle. Journal of Animal Science, 81, pp. E8–E16, 2003.

[111] DiLorenzo, N. & Galyean, M.L., Applying technology with newer feed ingredients in feedlot diets: do the old paradigms apply?. Journal of Animal Science, 88, pp. 123–132, 2010.

[112] Giger-Reverdin, S., Aufrkre, J., Sauvant, D., Demarquilly, C. & Vermorel, M., Prediction of the energy values of compound feeds for ruminants. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 48, pp. 73–98, 1994. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(94)90113-9

[113] Razzaque, M.A., Bedair, M., Abbas, S. & Al-Mutawa, T., Economic impact of calf mortality on dairy farms in Kuwait. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 29(3), 97–101, 2009.

[114] Nennich, T.D., Harrison, J.H., Van Wieringen, L.M., Meyer, D., Heinrichs, A.J., Weiss, W.P., St-Pierre, N.R., Kincaid, R.L., Davidson, D., & Block. E., Prediction of manure and nutrient excretion of dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science, 88, pp. 3721–3733, 2005. doi: http://dx. doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(05)73058-7

[115] Gabler, M.T., Tozer, P.R. & Heinrichs, A.J., Development of a cost analysis spreadsheet for calculating the costs to raise a replacement dairy heifer. Journal of Dairy Science, 83, 1104– 1109, 2000. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(00)74975-7

[116] Hoffman, P.C., Simson, C.R. & Wattiaux, M., Limit feeding of gravid Holstein heifers: effect on growth, manure nutrient excretion, and subsequent early lactation performance. Journal of Dairy Science, 90, pp. 946–954, 2007. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022- 0302(07)71578-3

[117] Zanton, G.I. & Heinrichs, A.J., The effects of controlled feeding of a high-forage or high- concentrate ration on heifer growth and first-lactation milk production. Journal of Dairy Sci- ence, 90, pp. 3388–3396, 2007. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.2007-0041

[118] Ettema, J.F. & Santos, J.E.P., Impact of age at calving on lactation, reproduction, health,  and income in first-parity Holsteins on commercial farms. Journal of Dairy Science, 87,   pp. 2730–2742, 2004. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(04)73400-1

[119] Tozer, P.R. & Heinrichs, A.J., What affects the costs of raising replacement dairy heifers: A multiple-component analysis. Journal of Dairy Science, 84, pp. 1836, 2001. doi: http://dx. doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(01)74623-1

[120] Hoffman, P.C., Brehm, N.M., Price, S.G. & Prill-Adams, A., Effect of accelerated post pubertal growth and early calving on lactation performance of primiparous Holstein heifers. Journal of Dairy Science, 79, pp. 2024–2031, 1996. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022- 0302(96)76575-X

[121] Hoffman, P.C. & Funk, D.A., Applied dynamics of dairy replacement growth and manage- ment. Journal of Dairy Science, 75(9), pp. 2504–2516, 1992. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/ jds.S0022-0302(92)78012-6